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IM(3 


Joseph  Merrill, 

AMESBURY.    MASS. 


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Digitized  by  tlie  Internet  Arcliive 

in  2010  witli  funding  from 

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THE 


PRINCIPLES  OF  SCIENCE 


A.FrLi£D  ro 


THE    DOMESTIC    AND    MECHANIC    ARTS, 


MANUFACTURES  .\ND  AGRICULTURE ; 


REFLECTIONS  OX  THE  PROGRESS  OF  THE  ARTS,  AND  THEItt 
INFLUENCE  ON  NATIONAL  WELFARE. 


BY  ALONZO  POTTER,  D.  D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  MORAL  PIIILOSOPHT  AND  BHETORIC  IN  V.VIOX  COLLEOC, 
SCHEXECTADY,  NEW  YORK. 


REVISED    EDITION. 

X  E  TV    YORK: 

riARPER    (k    BROTHERS,    PUBLISHERS, 

FUAXKLIN     SQU.\RE. 

18  6  0. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1840,  by 

Marsh,  Capen,  I.yon,  and  Webb, 
in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Massachusetts. 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


This  volume  is  submitted  to  the  public  with  diffi- 
dence. The  subject  is  foreign  from  the  usual  course 
of  the  author's  studies,  and  was  at  first  undertaken 
for  the  lecture  room,  rather  than  for  the  press.  Large 
portions  of  it  have  been  delivered  in  the  form  of  lec- 
tures before  young  men,  in  Lyceums,  and  Mechanics' 
Institutes,  and  also  before  the  students  of  the  College 
with  which  the   author  is  connected. 

Some  of  the  Chapters  in  the  Third  Part,  espcciall) 
those  on  Cloth-manufacture,  Metallurgy,  and  Glass-mak- 
ing, are  little  more  than  compilations ;  and  the  author 
regrets,  that,  several  years  having  elapsed  since  they 
were  first  drawn  up,  he  is  unable  to  give  proper  au- 
thority for  all  his  statements,  or  to  refer,  in  every  case, 
to  tiie  source  from  which  he  drew  his  materials,  and, 
he  doubts  not,  in  some  instances,  his  language.  He 
would,  however,  instance  Dr.  Bigelow's  '  Elements  of 
Technology,'  Babbage  on  the  '  Economy,'  and  Ure  on 
tiie  '  Philosophy,  of  Manufactures,'  Ure's  'Dictionary 
of  the  Arts,'  and  McCulloch's  '  Statistics  of  the  British 
Empire,'  as  works  to  which  he  has  been  greatly  indebt- 
ed, especially  in  a  recent  revision.  The  \vork  will  be 
found  to  contain  some  notice  of  most  of  the  late  im- 
provements in  such  Arts  as  are  discussed. 


4  ADVERTISEMENT. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  volume  may  prove  to  be  a  con- 
venient Manual  for  those  who  are  engaged  in  indus- 
trious pursuits,  and  also  for  students,  and  for  popular 
reading.  To  give  a  complete  view  of  Technology, 
was  far  from  the  author's  intention,  and  has  been  ren- 
dered unnecessary  by  the  able  works  of  Drs.  Ure 
and  Bigelow.  He  aspires  to  no  higher  office  than  that 
of  introducing  the  student  to  a  subject  of  vast  extent, 
and  inciting  him  to  pursue  it.  So  far  as  it  presents 
a  formal  and  somewhat  extended  view  of  the  con- 
nexion between  Science  and  Art,  this  treatise  may 
claim  to  fill  a  place  not  yet  occupied  in  our  literature. 
The  author  is  but  too  sensible,  however,  that  it  will  be 
found  defective  ;  and  should  it  contribute,  in  any  de- 
gree, to  prepare  the  way  for  a  more  copious  and  accu- 
rate work,  he  will  see  it  superseded  without  regret. 

Residing  at  a  distance  from  the  publishers,  the  au- 
thor has  found  it  impossible  to  revise  the  shec's,  as 
they  passed  through  the  press.  For  this  important  ser- 
vice, he  has  been  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  a  friend, 
Dr.  E.  Hale,  of  Boston,  who  has  been  untiring  in  his 
attention  to  it,  and  who,  besides  several  amendments, 
has  added  to  the  work  about  twenty  pages  of  original 
iniiiter.  To  him  the  reader  is  indebted  for  the  descrip- 
tion of  printing  and  the  account  of  Dixon's  transfer- 
ring process,  in  the  body  of  the  Work,  and  for  the 
article  in  the  Appendix,  describing  Galvanic  Engrav- 
ing. 

The  Author  Vi'ould  also  express  his  acknowledge- 
ments to  Mr.  J.  W.  IxGRAHAJi,  the  able  and  indefatiga- 
ble Supervisor  of  the  v.orks  incorporated  into  '  The 
School  Library,'  for  the  care  and  accuracy  with 
which  he  has  superintended  the  execution  of  the 
work,  especially  in  the  selection  and  arrangement  of 
the  engravings,  and  for  the  useful  information  embod- 
ied in  the  glossary. 

U.vioN  College,  > 
Oclober,  1843.     \ 


CONTEiN  1  S. 


Preface,        .     .  .3 

PART  I. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Introduction, 9 

CHAPTER  II. 

The  Arts  dependent  on  Science, 21 

CHAPTER  III. 
Other  advantages  which  the  instructed  has  over  the 

uninformed  Artisan, 26 

Sum:mary  of  Principles  in  Part  I., 36 


PART  II. 

AGENTS  EMPLOYED  IN  THE  ARTS.   PAGE  39 

CHAPTER  I. 

Chemical  Agents,         

CHAPTER  II. 
Mechanical  Agents  employed  in  the  Arts, 

Inertia  of  Bodies, 

Centrifugal  Force, 
Compound  Motion, 
Centre  of  Gravity,       ... 

CHAPTER  III 
Mechanical  Agents. — Animate  Forces, 
Inanimate  Forces, — Gravity,     . 


40 

47 
48 
50 
51 
52 

54 
56 


1* 


6  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Mechanical  Agents. — Inanimate  Forces, — Gravity,   .     60 

CHAPTER  V. 
Mechanical  Agents. — Inanimate  Forces, — Gravity,    .     68 
Elasticity, 71 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Mechanical    Agents.  —  Inanimate     Forces, — Heat, 

Steam,        75 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Machinery  employed  in  the  Arts,         87 

Summary  of  Principles  in  Part  II., 103 

PART  III. 

RATIONALE  OF  THE  ARTS.   PAGE  107. 

CHAPTER  I. 
Agriculture,  Chemical, 108 

CHAPTER  II. 

Chemical  Agriculture, 116 

Mechanical  Agriculture, 118 

CHAPTER  III. 
Architecture, 121 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Architecture  continued, 128 

CHAPTER  V. 
Manufacture  of  Cloth,  Paper,  &c., 137 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Cotton  Manufacture, 14*5' 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Cloth  Manufacture. — Paper-making,  &.c 152 

Chemical  processes  employed, — Bleaching,      .     .     .  159 

Scouring,  and  Cleansing,  and  Dyeing, 101 

Calico-printing, 1P4 


CONTENTS.  7 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

The  Domestic  Arts, 170 

Fermentation, 172 

Distillation, 177 

Culinary  Processes, 179 

Management  of  Milk, 181 

Preserving  of  Food, 185 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Arts  of  working  Metals,  Mining,  Sac, 189 

CHAPTER  X. 
The  Manufacture  of  Glass, 199 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Pottery  and  Porcelain, 207 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Copying,  including  Casting,  Printing,  Engraving,  &c.  213 
Di.xon's  Transfer  Process,         228 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
Locomotion, 230 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
The  Progress  of  the  Arts, ,  246 

CHAPTER  XV. 
Influence  of  the  Useful  Arts  on  National  Welfare,       260 


APPENDIX. 

I. 

Nature  and  Objects  of  Technology, 293 

II. 

Classification  of  the  Arts, 294 

Mechanical  Arts,         ...  295 

Chemical  Manufactures, ...  301 


8  CONTENTS. 

III. 

Connexion  of  the  Uselul  and  Fine  Arts,       ....  303 

IV. 
The  Importance  of  Science  to  the  Mechanic,  .     .        306 

V. 
Progress  of  English  and  American  Agriculture,     .     .  325 

VI. 
Improvement  in  Food,  Clothing,  and  Lodging,      .     .  343 

England,  in  the  Reign  of  Elizabeth, 344 

"        in  the  reign  of  George  II.,        349 

Scotland,        351^ 

United  States, 3-57 

Notices  of  the  mode  of  Living  in  England  previous  to 

Elizabeth, 358 

In  reign  of  Henry  VII.,        359 

"      "  Edward  III., 360 

VII. 
Manufacture  of  American  Iron, 376 

VIII. 

Engraving  by  Galvanic  Electricity, 332 

IX. 
Ancient  Rate  of  Travelling, 391 

X. 

Influence  of  Improvements  on  Human  Welfare,   .     .  393 

XI. 
Ancient  and  Modern  Philosophy  compared,       .     .     .  395 

XII. 
Technological  Instruction.  397 

Note  on  the  Cotton  Manufacture, 401 

Glossary, 403 

l^DZx, ...  423 


THE  PRINCIPLES 


SCIENCE  APPLIED  TO  THE  ART8. 


PART  1. 


CHAPTER  I. 


INTRODUCTION 


Man,  considered  %villi  retoreiice  merely  to  his  physi- 
cal powers,  seems,  in  many  respects,  inferior  to  other 
animals.  With  loss  strength  and  hardihood  than  some 
of  them,  he  has,  at  the  same  time,  less  fleetness  and 
agilily  than  others.  He  is  but  imperfectly  provided 
witii  weapons  for  his  defence ;  he  has  no  adequate 
means  for  procuring  the  subsistence  required  by  his  fas- 
tidious taste  and  delicate  constitution  ;  and,  though  ten- 
derly alive  to  the  vicissitudes  of  climate,  and  dwelling 
in  all  latitudes,  he  has  not  been  supplied  with  that  warm 
covering,  of  fur  or  wool,  which  has  been  bestowed  by 
Nature  on  every  other  warm-blooded  animal.  Left, 
therefore,  to  his  bodily  powers,  man  would  be,  of  all 
animals,  one  of  the  most  defenceless  and  wretched. 

The  story  of  Robinson  Crusoe  shows,  in  a  striking 
manner,  witli  what  difficulty  he  maintains  even  life, 
when  deprived  of  some  of  his  customary  tools  and 
weapons,  and  left  without  the  assistance  of  liis  fellows. 
Had  Crusoe  been  cast  upon  the  island,  naked,  and 
without  the  stores  and  ammunition  which  he  procured 
trom  the  wreck,  ho  would  hardiv  have  been  able  to  live 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

a  month.*  The  same  fact  is  still  more  strikingly  illus- 
trated, by  the  recent  adventures  of  Ross  Cox,  who, 
while  travelling  with  a  company  of  traders,  in  the 
Northwest  Territory,  was  one  day,  when  he  had  fallen 
asleep,  accidentally  left  by  his  companions,  and  not 
found  again,  till  several  days  after.  It  happened,  that, 
owing  to  the  extreme  heat  of  the  weather,  he  had  di- 
vested himself  of  his  weapons,  and  of  nearly  all  his 
clothing,  which  were  carried  off  by  the  party.  He  was 
left,  therefore,  like  other  animals,  to  his  natural  re- 
sources ;  and  the  picture  which  he  gives,  of  the  extrem- 
ities to  which  he  was  quickly  reduced,  by  hunger,  by 
the  torturing  stings  of  insects,  the  terror  of  wild  beasts, 
and  the  impossibility  of  tracing  his  companions,  is  equal- 
ly affecting  and  instructive.  It  is  quite  evident,  that, 
if  he  had  not  been  most  opportunely  found,  he  must 
soon  have  perished. 

Yet,  in  spite  of  these  disadvantages,  man  has  be- 
come, by  means  of  his  intelligence,  and  by  cooperating 
with  his  fellows,  the  lord  of  the  creation.  Surrounded 
with  natural  powers,  which  can  be  pressed  into  his  ser- 
vice, he  has  been  enabled,  by  his  reason  to  observe 
and  comprehend,  and  by  his  hand  to  apply,  these  pow- 
ers, until,  from  the  weakest  and  most  helpless  of  ani- 

*  Our  readers  are  aware,  that  this  delightful  and  instructive  ro- 
mance of  Defoe  was  founded  on  the  adventures  of  Alexander  Sel- 
kirk, a  sailor,  who,  being  at  variance  with  his  captain,  requested  to 
be  left  on  an  uninhabited  island.  He  carried  with  him,  besides  his 
clothes,  a  musket,  an  iron  pot,  a  can,  a  hatchet,  a  knife,  mathemati- 
cal instruments,  and  a  Bible.  His  means  of  support  and  self-defence, 
therefore,  were,  to  a  great  extent,  artificial.  It  may  possibly  be 
objected,  that  our  examples  of  man's  natural  imbecility  are  taken 
from  individuals  who  had  once  lived  in  civilized  society,  and  had  thus 
been  rendered  effeminate  ;  and  that  we  ought  rather  to  adduce  the 
case  of  those  who  have  lived,  like  animals,  only  in  a  state  of  Nature. 
One  or  two  such  individuals  have  been  discovered,  within  the  last 
century,  living  alone,  in  forests  ;  as,  for  example,  Peter,  the  Wild 
Boy,  in  Germany,  and  the  Savage  of  Avignon,  in  France.  They 
were  found,  however,  in  the  lowest  physical  and  intellectual  condi- 
tion, subsisting  on  the  bark  of  trees,  unable  to  distinguish,  by  touch, 
between  a  carved  and  painted  surface,  and  having  hardly  a  trace  of 
humanity.  Such  cases  afford  the  most  conclusive  proof,  that,  as 
men,  we  owe  most  of  onr  power  and  dignity  to  culture. 


INTRODUCTION.  1  1 

mals,  he  has  become  the  most  powerful  and  dreaded. 
Not  only  animals,  with  their  flcetness  and  strength,  but 
even  winds,  and  waves,  and  heat,  and  gravitv,  have 
been  trained  to  obey  him  ;  and,  operating  by  means  of 
machinery,  they  now  fabricate  for  him,  almost  without 
intervention  on  his  part,  the  choicest  food  and  rainn^it ; 
transport  him,  with  the  celerity  of  the  deer  or  the  an- 
telope, from  place  to  place  ;  and  surround  him  witli  all 
the  comforts  and  conveniences  of  life.* 

To  designate,  generally,  the  means,  by  which  such 
results  have  been  attained,  we  employ  the  term  art. 
In  the  earlier  periods  of  society,  the  useful  artsf  are 
cultivated  chiefly  from  necessity,  and  without  regular 
principles.  The  processes  are  rude,  and  are  extended 
little  further  than  imperious  necessity  requires.  But  at 
later  periods,  when  men  have  leisure  to  trace  the  prop- 
erties of  matter  and  the  relations  of  cause  and  effect ; 
when  their  wants  multiply  and  become  more  refined, 
and  when  time  has  elapsed,  sufficient  to  furnish  them 
with  important  and  well-established  principles,  these 
processes  become  more  rigorous  and  scientific.  Instead 
of  being  random  experiments,  made  without  forethought, 
and  on  no  definite  grounds,  they  become  judicious  and 
systematic  arrangements,  which  aim  at  embodying,  in 

*  The  power  of  man  over  the  nature  and  ri)non7}t  of  resectable 
and  animal  productions  is  scarcely  less  wonderful.  "'He  has  changed 
the  crab  into  the  apple  ;  the  harsh  and  astringent  sloe  into  the  deli- 
cious plum  ;  the  coarse  and  bitter  seaside  brassica  into  the  cauliflow- 
er ;  and  has  improved  and  augmented  the  corn-tribes,  to  an  incredi- 
ble extent."  These  are  but  examples.  In  the  animal  world,  it  is  the 
same.  All  domestic  animals,  whether  used  for  food,  service,  or  pleas- 
ure, "  have  sprung  from  a  few  wild  and  unattractive  species,  and  have 
been  made  what  they  are,  in  a  great  degree,  by  the  intervention  of 
man.  Moreover,  the  most  useful  of  these  varieties  of  animals  have 
been  transported  by  man  into  every  region  of  the  globe  to  which  he 
has  himself  been  able  to  penetrate." — P rout's  Bridgewatcr  Trea- 
tise. 

t  The  arts  are  divided  into  useful  and  fine  arts.  The  former 
are  so  called,  because  their  main  object  is  utility  ;  whereas  the 
principal  object  of  the  latter  is  to  gratify  imagination  and  taste. 
Some  arts,  however,  are  of  a  mixed  nature,  being  both  useful  and 
ornamental.  To  practise  the  fine  arts,  in  perfection,  requires  geniua. 
Excellence  in  the  useful  arts  is  more  the  result  of  imitation. 


1'2  INTKODUCTION. 

a  machine  or  a  method,  some  wellknown  law.  Thus 
it  appears,  that,  though  the  useful  arts  may  precede 
science,  at  first,  they  will  subsequently  follow  and  be 
guided  by  its  hght.  In  wliatever  proportion  th.e  discov- 
eries of  philosophers  multiply  and  become  practical,  in 
just  the  same  proportion  will  these  arts  be  perfected, 
and  the  physical  resources  and  enjoyments  of  mankind 
be  increased.  Hence  the  importance  of  that  connexion 
ichich  subsists  between  the  physical  sciences  and 
the  USEFUL  ARTS,  to  illustrate  which,  will  be  the  princi- 
pal object  of  the  following  pages. 

Few  subjects  are  entitled  to  more  attention,  both  from 
the  student  and  the  practical  man.  While  science  has 
been  too  prone  to  abstract  researches,  too  much  inclined 
to  keep  aloof  from  the  haunts  of  business  and  industry, 
the  arts,  on  the  other  hand,  have  been  too  well  content 
with  rules,  adopted  empirically,  and  followed  blindlv 
and  without  reflection.  The  pursuits  of  the  scholar 
and  the  artisan,  which  have  really  the  same  object  in 
view,  and  which  ought  to  have  been  prosecuted  in  uni- 
son, have  not  only  been  kept  apart,  but  have  been  the 
subjects  of  mutual  suspicion  and  ridicule.  The  phi- 
losopher has  looked  down  upon  the  labors  of  the  arti- 
san as  sordid  and  degrading.  The  artisan,  in  his  turn, 
has  ridiculed  the  speculations  of  the  philosopher  as 
visionary  and  unprofitable.  The  result  of  this  two-fold 
misconception  has  been  pernicious  in  the  extreme. 

In  the  first  place,  it  has  tended  to  render  the  labors 
of  science  barren  and  useless ;  causing  them,  at  one 
time,  to  be  wasted  on  frivolous  subjects,  and,  at  anoth- 
er, to  reject  or  undervalue  the  aid  of  practical  and  me- 
chanical skill.  It  has  yet  more  frequently,  perhaps, 
impaired  the  success  of  the  practical  man,  persuading 
him  to  persist  in  employing  expensive,  circuitous,  and 
ineffectual,  methods,  for  attaining  that,  to  which  science 
would  have  conducted  him  by  a  short  and  easy  path. 
One  of  our  objects,  in  the  present  Work,  will  he,  to  ex- 
pose the  consequences  of  this  misconception,  and  to 
show,  at  the  same  time,  that  the  studv  and  the  work- 


INTllODUCTION.  13 

shop  ought  to  stand  side  by  side,  and  carry  forward 
their  labors  in  conjunction  ;  the  one  bein^j;  employed  in 
investii^tinii:  principles,  the  other,  in  api)lyin2;  them  ; 
that  science  has  performed  but  half  her  work,  unless 
she  has  deduced  from  h.er  discoveries  some  useful  art 
or  invention ;  and  that  art  has  never  mastered  even  its 
own  processes,  until  it  has  become  master  of  the  reasons 
as  well  as  of  the  details. 

Nor  is  it  the  man  of  science,  or  the  practical  man, 
alone, ^or  whom  this  subject  ought  to  have  interest.  It 
has  claims  upon  all  persons  engaged  in  liberal  studies, 
and  especially  upon  those,  wlio,  in  this  age  of  enter- 
prise and  invention,  are  in  a  course  of  elementary  edu- 
cation. Our  houses  are  filled,  and  our  persons  covered, 
with  the  most  curious  and  useful  productions  of  the 
arts.  Ought*  we  to  remain  ignorant  of  the  processes 
by  wiiich  they  are  fabricated  ?  Above  all,  ought  we  to 
be  ignorant  of  the  physical  laivs  on  which  their  fabrica- 
tion depends  ?  In  such  processes,  man  is  but  the  hum- 
ble agent.  The  mighty  power,  wiiich  works  out  the 
result,  resides  in  nature,  where  it  has  been  planted,  and 
is  continually  sustained,  by  the  Divine  hand.  There  it 
ojicrates,  with  silent  but  ceaseless  activity,  and,  while 
moulded,  in  some  slight  degree,  to  our  purposes,  and 
emploved  in  supplying  our  wants,  is  carrying  on,  over 
wider  scenes,  its  mighty  operations ;  imparting  its  in- 
fluence to  the  whole  body  of  the  earth,  and  air,  and  sea ; 
extending  its  sway,  perhaps,  over  other  planets  and  sys- 
tems, and  contributing  to  sustain  and  carry  forward  the 
order  of  the  whole  material  world.  That  power,  for 
instance,  whicii  keeps  our  planet  in  its  course,  and 
moves  forward  all  the  parts  of  the  solar  system  in  one 
unceasing  and  harmonious  round,  is  the  very  same 
power  which  gives  mechanical  value  to  a  w'aterfall, 
causes  the  plumb-line  to  take  a  vertical  direction,  first 
raises  the  vapor  which  forms  the  clouds,  and  then  brings 
it  back,  in  gentle  dews  and  fertilizing  showers,  to  glad- 
den tlie  tiiirsty  soil !  And  this  is  but  one  of  a  thous- 
and instances.  How  interesting,  then,  to  trace  these 
2  s.  A. 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

principles,  as  they  thus  operate,  at  the  same  moment^ 
through  the  vast  mechanism  of  Nature  and  in  the  mi- 
nute contrivances  of  man  ;  to  see  that,  while  they  as- 
sist in  wheeling  planets  and  suns  through  their  mighty 
and  "  unshaken  rounds,"  they  are,  at  the  same  moment, 
performing  for  men  the  humblest  offices  of  service  !  fit 
emblems  of  that  Being,  for  whom  nothing  is  too  vast, 
nothing  too  minute !  of  that  Jesus,  who,  while  charged 
with  a  world's  deliverance  from  sin  and  death,  could 
still  condescend  to  manufacture  wine  for  the  marriage- 
feast  of  the  poor,  and  to  wash  the  feet  of  his  lowly 
disciples  ! 

Independent,  however,  of  the  interest  which  this  sub- 
ject must  possess,  for  every  liberal  and  inquiring  mind, 
it  has  claims  of  a  more  urgent  nature.  It  is  a  fact, 
generally  overlooked,  but  none  the  less  true,  that  hardly 
any  branch  of  science  can  be  studied,  nor  any  profes- 
sion prosecuted  with  advantage,  without  some  acquaint- 
ance with  the  theory,  economy,  and  history,  of  the 
Useful  Arts.  Take  the  Mathematical  and"  Physical 
Sciences,  for  example.  As  generally  studied  by  the 
young,  they  present  to  the  mind  little  else  than  abstrac- 
tions ;  principles,  which  seem  too  vague  and  too  far- 
fetched, to  be  brought  down  to  the  "  business  and  bo- 
soms of  men."  Hence,  the  lassitude  with  which  they 
are  pursued,  and  the  sad  facility  Avith  which  they  are 
forgotten.  How  different  would  it  be,  if  the  pupil  were 
early  accustomed  to  trace  these  principles  to  their  prac- 
tical applications  ;  if,  from  the  school  or  lecture-room, 
he  were  conducted  to  the  shop  or  the  manufactory, 
and  were  there  to  see  these  principles  toiling  in  man's 
service,  and  becoming  most  efficient  contributors  to  his 
welfare !  This  course  is  actually  adopted,  in  many  of 
the  schools  of  Germany  and  France  ;  and  the  conse- 
quence is  seen  in  the  quickened  interest,  the  increased 
precision,  and  stronger  grasp,  of  tlie  pupil's  mind.  He 
sees,  hears,  feels,  that  these  Laws  of  Nature  are  no 
barren  generalities,  but  are  most  powerful  and  useful 
agents  ;  that  art  succeeds  only  so  far  as  she  observes 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

and  respects  these  Laws ;  and  that  the  highest  and 
most  benignant  triumphs  of  human  industry  are  equal- 
ly the  triumphs  of  Nature,  and  of  that  science,  whose 
province  it  is  to  interpret  Nature.  . 

Docs  the  student  weary,  then,  over  the  theorems  of 
liis  Euchd,  or  tlie  formula?  of  liis  Algebra?  Let  him 
be  taught  how  these  very  theorems  and  formula)  are 
employed  by  the  engineer,  in  his  nice  adjustments  and 
calculations ;  by  the  mariner,  as  he  shapes  his  unerring 
course  across  the  trackless  sea  ;  by  the  astronomer,  as 
he  passes  the  limits  of  this  little  earth,  seems  to  set 
his  foot  on  the  most  distant  planet,  and  takes  measure 
of  its  size,  its  density,  and  the  span  of  its  orbit.  A  sin- 
gle property  of  similar  triangles,  which,  to  the  mere  stu- 
dent of  the  Elements,  looks  like  matter  onlv  for  trivial 
curiosity,  is  found,  by  the  student  of  the  arts,  to  be  the 
seminal  and  prolific  principle,  out  of  which  has  grown 
the  whole  theory  of  trigonometrical  measurement, 
whether  applied  to  common  surveying,  to  the  measure- 
ment of  an  arc  of  the  meridian,  or  to  determining  those 
vast  distances  which  separate  us  from  the  remotest  and 
most  erratic  members  of  the  solar  system.  It  is  the 
same  with  Chemistry  and  Mechanical  Philosophy. 
Teach  them  in  their  uses,  as  well  as  in  their  theory, 
and  they  will  no  longer  seem  but  a  tissue  of  hard 
names  and  dreary  abstractions.  They  will  be  seen  to 
shed  their  concentrated  light  over  the  humblest  pro- 
cesses of  the  artisan,  and  to  open  before  him  prospects 
of  improvement,  as  interminable  in  extent,  as  they  are 
animating  in  their  influence. 

Nor  is  it  only  to  the  student  of  physical  and  mathe- 
matical science,  that  the  study  of  the  useful  arts  offers 
this  advantage.  If,  from  the  study  of  Nature  you  turn 
your  attention  to  the  constitution  of  societv,  to  the  laws 
which  regulate  its  progress  and  welfare,  you  will  find, 
even  there,  that  acquaintance  with  the  economy  and 
history  of  the  useful  arts  is  beneficial,  both  in  guard- 
ing the  mind  from  error,  and  in  revealing  the  true  prin- 
ciples which  have  governed  the  past,  and  must  inevi- 


16  INTRODUCTIOX. 

tably  control  tlie  future.  Is  it,  for  instance,  Political 
Economy  that  you  would  master. — the  causes  which 
regulate  the  production,  distribution,  and  consumption, 
of  wealth?  Would. you  ever  bear  in  mind,  too.  that 
the  ultimate  end  of  a  sound  and  benevolent  economy 
is  not  so  much  icealth,  as  welfare:  not  so  much  the 
accumulation  of  material  products,  as  the  multiplica- 
tion of  all  those  means  and  appliances  which  tend  to 
raise  man  in  the  scale,  as  well  of  moral  and  intellectual, 
as  of  physical,  being;  that  wealth  is  not  an  end,  but 
only  one  of  the  means,  of  national,  as  it  is  of  individual, 
improvement  ;  and  that  the  industrious  classes,  being 
the  most  numerous,  in  a  State,  and  th.erefore  the  most 
miportant,  their  advancement  is  to  be  the  gieat  object 
of  the  statesman's  policy  ?  Yes  !  Would  you  write 
deep  upon  your  minds  and  hearts  these  gieat  but  neg- 
lected principles  ?  Go  to  the  forge  and  the  workshop. 
Study,  in  their  economy  and  theory,  and  aJso  in  their 
history,  those  arts  which  are  the  real  agents  in  produc- 
ing and  distributing  wealth.  See  where  other  nations 
have  erred  in  fostering  them,  leaving  men  to  decay,  if 
the  arts  could  but  flourish ;  taxing  labor,  instead  of 
capital, — the  necessaries,  instead  of  the  luxuries,  of  life  : 
and  degrading  the  human  soul,  with  all  its  intelligence 
and  immortality,  into  a  mere  appendage  to  machinerv. 
Learn  how  the  artisan  is  to  be  protected  against  the 
evils  incident  to  inventions  and  improvement,  while,  at 
the  same  time,  you  teach  him  that  his  permanent  wel- 
fare is  promoted  by  these  very  inventions  :  that  his  in- 
terests are  bound  up  with  those  of  the  wealthiest  capi- 
talist ;  and  that  he  needs  nothing  but  intelligence  and 
virtue,  to  enable  him,  in  this  land  of  freedom,  to  reap 
his  rightful  share  of  profit  and  advancement. 

Our  limits  do  not  permit  us  to  enumerate  all  the  re- 
spects in  which  a  study  of  the  useful  arts  is  calculated 
to  shed  light  over  other  departments  of  human  inqui- 
ry. History  needs  its  aid.  in  tracing  the  progress  of 
man,  from  barbarism  to  civilization  ;  from  the  darkness 
of  ignorance  or  tradition,  and  the  coarseness  of  unbri- 


INTRODUCTION.  H 

died  sensuality,  to  the  benign  light  of  literature  and 
the  conscious  dignity  and  refinement  of  moral  freedom. 
Poetry  needs  its  aid,  in  supplying  illustrations  to  arrest 
the  ever-varying  taste  of  a  busy  anid  excited  age  ;  and 
even  theology,  tiiough  conversant  only  with  high  and 
holy  things,  need  not  disdain  to  borrow  lessons  from 
this  humble  and  unpretending  source.  It  becomes  not 
him,  who  is  given  to  sacred  studies  or  devout  contem- 
plation, to  turn  away  from  the  useful  arts,  as  though  they 
were  silent  in  the  service  of  God,  or  "yielded  but  faint 
praise."  Tliey  tell  of  man's  organization,  which  has 
fitted  him  so  admirably  for  the  fabrication  of  instru- 
ments and  the  labors  of  industry.  They  tell  of  that 
gift,  which  attests  the  agency  of  Infinite  wisdom  and 
power — exhaustless  ingenuity, — an  ingenuity  which  is 
ever  multiplying  expedients  to  vanquish  time  and  s])ace, 
to  subdue  refractory  substances,  and  to  transform  into 
useful  and  pliable  agents  the  wildest  and  most  stormy 
elements  of  nature.  They  suggest  a  comparison, — 
how  greatly  to  the  honor  of  the  Creator  ! — between  the 
mimic  processes  of  human  art,  and  those  boundless 
movements  which  are  ever  going  forward,  silently  but 
harmoniously,  through  the  regions  of  space. 

Nor  let  it  be  thought  that  it  is  the  student,  alone, 
who  would  profit  by  an  acquaintance  with  tiiis  branch 
of  knowledge.  To  say  nothing,  in  this  place,  of  the 
mechanic  and  artisan,  where  is  there  a  profession, 
the  members  of  which  could  not  profit  by  studying  the 
application  of  science  to  the  arts  ?  The  merchant,  for 
example,  would  evidently  be  aided,  when  he  traffics  in 
the  products  of  these  arts,  by  understanding  the  prin- 
ciples which  regulate  the  manufacture  of  them,  the 
changes  and  improvement  which  are  making  in  that 
manufacture,  and  the  causes  which  are  likely,  from  time 
to  time,  to  vary  the  supply  or  demand.  The  lawyer  is 
often  called  to  defend  or  impugn  the  validity  of  patents, 
to  litigate  contracts  made  between  mechanics  and  their 
employers,  or  to  try  causes  involving  the  operations  of 
a  machine  or  the  management  of  a  factory.  Can  he 
2* 


18  INTRODUCTION. 

hope  to  do  justice  to  his  chents  or  to  his  own  character, 
unless  he  can  seize  with  readiness  upon  the  principles 
and  language  appropriate  to  the  case,  and  employ  them 
with  judgement  and  skill  ?  The  same  thing  is  yet  more 
strikingly  true,  in  many  other  pursuits ;  and  I  hazard 
little,  in  saying,  that  there  is,  in  the  present  age,  scarce- 
ly an  employment,  to  which  a  man  can  devote  his  tal- 
ents or  his  capital,  that  does  not  call  for  some  acquaint- 
ance with  the  theory,  as  well  as  with  the  practice,  of 
the  useful  arts. 

Entertaining  these  views  of  the  importance  of  our 
subject,  we  shall  endeavor  to  discuss  it,  in  a  manner 
which  will  interest  all  classes  of  readers.  It  will  be 
our  main  object,  in  the  following  pages,  to  exhibit  the 
arts  as  dependent  on  principles,  as  being,  in  fact,  the 
practical  results  of  the  discoveries  which  have  been 
made  in  the  various  departments  of  physical  science. 
It  is  said  of  Lord  Bacon,  that,  having  collected  a  great 
number  of  books  on  Gardening  and  Rural  affairs,  and 
found  them  destitute  of  the  information  he  sought,  he 
caused  them  all  to  be  piled  up  in  his  court-yard,  and  set 
on  fire  :  uttering,  at  the  same  time,  these  memorable 
words  :  ■'•  In  all  these  books,  I  find  no  piiyiciples  ;  they 
can  therefore  be  of  no  use  to  any  man.''  To  shield  this 
humble  work  from  condemnation,  on  such  grounds, 
has  been  the  Author's  special  aim  ;  and  he  has  also 
endeavored,  by  bringing  into  prominent  view  the  laws, 
on  which  processes  in  the  arts  depend,  to  establish  the 
claim  of  these  arts  to  be  ranked  among  the  subjects  of 
liberal  and  academical  study.  At  the  same  time,  it  has 
been  his  desire  to  treat  the  subject  in  a  manner  calcu- 
lated to  interest  persons  engaged  in  the  various  mechan- 
ical and  chemical  arts,  and  in  agricultural  pursuits. 
The  time  has  arrived,  when  knowledge  will  more  sure- 
ly command  success,  than  at  any  former  period  of  the 
world  ;  and  when,  without  knowledge,  no  practical  man 
can  be  secure  of  permanent  success.  The  Author  will 
have  more  than  attained  his  object,  if,  on  the  one  hand, 
he  can  succeed  in  impressing,  upon  anv  considerable 


INTRODUCTION.  19 

number  of  minds,  the  great  importance  of  taking  prac- 
tical views  of  science:  and  on  the  other,  if  he  can  impart, 
to  persons  engaged  in  the  arts,  any  useful  hints,  respect- 
ing the  principles  and  processes  with  which  they  are 
called  to  deal. 

This  Treatise  is  divided  into  three  parts. 

The  first  part  is  devoted  to  illustrating,  by  argument 
and  historical  facts,  the  Dependence  of  the  Arts  on 
Science. 

The  second  part  treats  of  the  Principal  Agents, 
Mechanical  and  Chemical,  ichich  are  employed  in  the 
Arts ;  and  also  of  the  Elements  of  Machinery. 

The  third  part  exhibits,  briefly,  and  in  connexion  with 
their  rationale,  the  principal  operations  in  Agriculture, 
Architecture,  Cloth  Manufacture,  The  Domestic  Arts, 
Metallurgy,  ttc.  &c. 

It  may  not  be  improper,  in  closing  this  Chapter,  to 
remark,  that,  in  giving  to  the  arts,  under  consideration, 
the  customary  name  of  useful  arts,  we  would  by  no 
means  intimate,  that  they  alone  are  useful,  or  that  they 
are  preeminently  so.  Such  arts,  after  all,  belong  to  the 
world  without  us.  It  is  their  province  to  apply  the  laws 
of  matter,  which  have  been  discovered  by  science,  so  as 
to  change,  for  some  useful  purpose,  the  form,  position,  or 
internal  structure  of  masses  of  matter.  Creations  though 
they  are,  of  mind,  and  proud  monuments  of  its  exhaust- 
less  ingenuity,  their  immediate  and  most  palpable  use  is 
only  to  increase  the  outward  or  physical  comforts  and 
accommodations  of  mankind.  But  there  are  arts, — 
sometimes  called  the  Liberal  Arts, — the  direct  object 
of  which  is,  to  move  and  elevate  mind — which,  for  ex- 
ample, would  enlighten  reason,  gratify  taste,  fill  the 
imagination  with  visions  of  ideal  beauty  or  greatness, 
and  incite  the  will  to  high  and  holy  resolve.  Of  this 
class  are,  Education,  which  proposes  to  develope  and 
discipline,  in  due  proportion,  the  various  powers  and 
susceptibilities  of  the  soul ;  Eloquence,  which,  employ- 
ing language  as  its  instrument,  would  act  on  the  con- 


20  INTRODUCTION. 

duct  and  sentiments  of  men,  through  the  medium  of 
their  reason,  taste,  feehngs,  and  fancy ;  Government, 
which  aims  to  give  such  direction  to  the  energies  of 
men,  hving  together  as  pohtical  societies,  as  will  fulfil 
the  demands  of  justice,  and  best  promote  the  "greatest 
happiness  of  the  greatest  number  ;"  and  finally,  poetry, 
painting,  music,  and  the  like^^we  arts,  as  they  are  call- 
ed,— which  would  move,  to  their  lowest  depths,  the  foun- 
tains of  thought  and  feeUng  tliat  are  lodged  within  us. 
These,  it  is  evident,  are  supremely  useful,  since  they 
touch  our  highest  and  most  enduring  interests,  and  speak, 
at  the  same  time,  to  our  most  generous  sensibilities. 

It  is  a  fact,  worthy  of  much  more  consideration  than 
it  has  vet  received,  that  each  of  these  arts,  too,  is  found- 
ed on  science  ;  that,  as  the  physical  arts  can  be  carried 
to  their  utmost  perfection,  only  by  those  who  are  well 
versed  in  the  laws  that  govern  the  material  world,  so  the 
liberal  arts  can  be  successfully  cultivated  and  illustrated, 
only  by  those  who  have  profoundly  studied  man ;  who 
have  gazed,  with  enhghtened  and  admiring  eye,  on  that 
masterpiece  of  Divine  wisdom, — the  human  soul,  with 
its  capabilities,  its  untiring  energies,  its  restless  longings 
after  the  beautiful  and  good,  its  Protean  versatility  of 
thought,  feeling,  and  action.  As  the  (so-called)  useful 
arts  are  but  tlie  practical  application,  to  physical  pur- 
poses, of  mechanics  and  chemistry,  so  the  liberal  arts 
are  but  the  carrying  out,  to  definite  moral  results,  of  a 
higher  philosophy, — the  philosophy  of  human  nature : 
and  he  alone  is  qualified  to  practise. — nay,  he  alone  is 
qualified  thoroughly  to  appreciate  and  enjoy  them,  who, 
to  practical  skill,  has  added  an  intimate  knowledge  of 
the  workings  of  the  human  heart,  both  in  individuals 
and  in  societies.  We  may  take  occasion,  hereafter, 
to  enlarge  upon  this  truth,  and  enforce  it  by  suitable 
illustrations.  We  notice  it,  at  present,  merely  that  we 
may  guard  against  the  supposition,  that  the  arts,  now 
under  consideration,  because  called  useful,  are  so,  alone ; 
and  that  the  liberal  and  fine  arts  are  only  fitted  to 
amuse,  or,  at  the  best,  to  embellish  and  refine. 


THE  ARTS  DEPENDENT  ON  SCIENCE.  21 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE  ARTS  DEPENDENT  ON  SCIENCE. 

It  is  the  maxim  of  a  prudent  man,  always  to  keep 
the  law  on  his  side.  While  he  does  so,  it  aids  him  in 
his  labors,  and  protects  him  in  the  enjoyment  of  his 
blessings.  Now,  what  is  true  of  human  laws,  is  yet 
more  eminently  true  of  those  natural  laws  which  the 
Creator  has  impressed  on  material  substances.  These 
laws  are  absolute  and  immutable.  They  cannot  bend 
to  suit  tlie  convenience  or  exigencies  of  men  ;  nor  can 
they  be  violated,  without  inflicting  on  the  transgressor 
certain  injury.  And  operating,  as  they  do,  on  every 
side  of  us,  and  serving  to  determine  the  properties  of 
every  object  and  the  results  of  every  movement,  they 
cannot  even  be  neglected  with  impunity.  Under  their 
direction,  tiie  mechanism  of  Nature  moves  forw^ard,  with 
uniform  and  irresistible  energy.  They  resemble  a  mighty 
engine,  which,  if  rightly  managed, — that  is,  according  to 
its  nature  and  properties, — may  be  made  to  work  out  the 
most  wonderful  and  imj)ortant  results ;  but  which,  if 
mismanaged,  will  inflict  on  h.im  who  attempts  to  guide 
it,  only  injury  and  loss. 

But  these  lav/s,  the  proper  application  of  which  to 
human  uses  is  so  important  and  yet  so  delicate,  can  be 
ascertained  only  through  Science.  Science  explores  the 
hidden  mechanism  of  Nature,  and  discovers  by  what 
laws  it  is  regulated.  It  traces  out  the  order  which  the 
Deity  has  established  in  His  works,  and  shows  how  this 
order  may  be  made  subservient  to  the  purposes  of  man. 
Art  avails  itself  of  this  knowledge,  arranges  its  mate- 
rials according  to  these  natural  laws,  and  endeavors  to 
effect,  on  a  small  scale,  what  the  Creator  is  constantly 
effecting  throughout  His  material  empire.  To  attempt 
an  arrangement,  without  such  knowledge,  would  be  like 
attempting  to  superintend  the  movements  of  a  steam- 


',i'Z  THE   ARTS  DEPENDENT  ON  SCIENCE. 

engine,  while  ignorant  of  its  nature  and  powers.  What 
should  we  expect,  if  the  engineering  of  our  steam-boats 
were  committed  to  men  wlio  had  never  examined  nor 
studied  their  machinery  ?  Should  we  not  feel  that  the 
lives  of  the  passengers  were  in  peril  ?  Should  we  not 
fear  that  serious  if  not  fatal  derangements  would  inevi- 
tably take  place,  and  that  such  derangements  would 
hardly,  if  ever,  be  repaired  ?  What  better  can  we  ex- 
pect of  those,  who,  in  any  of  the  arts,  attempt  to  em- 
ploy powers  or  properties  of  which  they  are  ignorant  ? 
What  shall  prevent  them  from  attempting  things, 
ivhich,  in  their  very  nature,  are  impossible  I  or  from 
employing  means  inadequate  or  actually  opposed  to 
the  end  they  have  in  view  1  or  from  adopting  tedious, 
expensive,  and  laborious,  methods  of  accomplishing 
their  purposes,  instead  of  those  which  are  short,  eco- 
nomical, and  easy  1  or,  finally,  from  leaving  iinat- 
tempted,  ivhat,  with  proper  knowledge,  they  might  not 
only  have  attempted,  but  have  accomplished^  without 
difficulty  ? 

'•'  Knowledge  is  power."  Instruct  the  artisan  in  the 
powers  and  principles  of  Nature,  and  he  can  always 
employ  them  in  the  cheapest  and  most  effectual  man- 
ner. But  ignorance  lias  no  security  from  error.  If 
right,  it  is  right  only  by  accident,  or  by  following  some 
•arbitrary  rule  ;  and,  since  accident  is  subject  to  no  rule, 
and  arbitrary  rules  must  often  fail,  through  some  defect 
in  themselves  or  their  application,  it  follows,  that  fail- 
ures must  often  occur,  unnecessarily.  Ignorance,  there- 
fore, is  weakness.  If  the  weakness  be  not  observed 
by  others,  or  felt  by  the  artisan  himself,  it  is  only  be- 
cause he  and  his  employers  are  alike  uninstructed.  It 
must  be  apparent  to  every  mind,  that,  if  tiie  physician 
were  unacquainted  with  the  structure  and  functions  of 
the  body,  if  he  knew  little  of  the  nature  of  diseases  or 
of  the  properties  of  medicinal  substances,  his  art  would 
become  the  ai't  of  killing,  rather  than  of  curing.  But 
there  is  surely  little  more  quackery,  in  attempting  to  treat 
an  animal  system,  of  the  nature  of  which  we  are  igno- 


THE   ARTS  DEPENDENT  ON   SCIENCE.  23 

rant,  than  there  is  in  undertaking  to  manage  inanimate 
agents,  respecting  uhicli  we  are  equally  ignorant.  It 
can  savor  but  little  more  of  presumption,  for  a  man,  whc 
is  unacquainted  with  anatomy,  to  undertake  the  treat- 
ment of  complicated  fractures  or  dangerous  wounds,  than 
it  does  for  him,  who  understands  neither  the  laws  of 
motion  nor  the  principles  of  machinery,  to  offer  to  con- 
struct or  repair  a  complicated  engine  or  instrument. 
In  some  cases,  both  may  succeed  ;  and,  since  the  struc- 
ture of  most  machines  is  less  intricate  than  that  of  a 
limb,  it  is  not  to  be  doubted,  that  the  uninstructed  ar- 
tisan will  succeed  more  frequently  than  the  uninstruct- 
ed surgeon.  But  instances  will  often  occur,  in  which 
both  must  fail.  The  limited  knowledge  acquired  from 
experience  will  not  reach  the  case,  and  the  operator  is 
left  to  the  mortifying  alternative,  of  trying  random  ex- 
periments or  of  declining  to  act. 

It  will  not  be  inferred,  we  trust,  from  these  remarks, 
tiiat  we  undervalue  the  aid  whicli  may  be  derived,  by 
practical  men,  from  experience.  We  know,  that,  by 
means  of  it,  they  acquire  a  skill  which  no  books  can 
communicate,  and  without  which  the  most  extensive 
theoretical  knowledge  would  be  of  little  avail.  A'or  is 
it  my  purpose  to  institute  a  comparison  between  the 
relative  values  of  science  and  experience,  in  cases  where 
only  one  can  be  attained.  In  the  present  age,  and  in 
our  country,  both  can  be  had.  While  the  apprentice 
is  receiving  the  practical  directions  of  his  master  ;  while 
he  is  habituating  his  eye  to  watch,  and  his  hand  to 
guide,  the  various  processes  of  his  art ;  he  may,  at  the 
same  time,  be  studying  the  principles  on  which  that 
art  depends.'  In  every  process,  he  avails  himself  of 
some  law  of  Nature.  That  law  he  may  be  made  to 
comprehend  ;  and  we  maintain,  that,  having  been  made 
to  comprehend  it,  having  ascertained  the  general  and 
universal  principles  on  which  his  operations  depend, 
together  with  such  collateral  knowledge  as  he  can  gath- 
er, with  ease,  from  works  on  popular  science,  he  will 
have  a  vast  advantage  over  the  artist  who  works  merely 


24  THE   ARTS  DEPENDENT  ON   SClENCt:. 

from  experience  or  by  arbitrary  rule.  These  advanta- 
ges we  propose  to  specify. 

I.  In  tiie  first  place,  he  ivill  be  prepared  for  a  greater 
number  of  emergencies.  However  great  the  experience 
of  the  artisan,  it  cannot  but  happen,  that  he  will  meet, 
in  practice,  many  cases  which  are  new.  Some  change 
in  the  quality  of  his  materials,  or  in  the  construction  of 
his  tools,  or  some  new  fact  developed  in  the  course  of 
his  operations,  will  place  him  in  a  situation  hitherto  un- 
tried. His  master's  directions  will  not  avail  him,  for 
they  never  contemplated  such  a  c&se.  His  own  expe- 
rience will  not  suffice,  for  it  reaches  to  no  such  contin- 
gency. One  of  those  books,  called  Guides  for  carpen- 
ters, masons,  &c.,  will  not  answer,  for  it  gives  only  ar- 
bitrary rules  for  such  cases  as  have  fallen  under  the 
immediate  eye  of  the  author  or  of  his  informers.  Whith- 
er, then,  shall  he  resort  ?  If  he  attempt  to  investigate 
the  problem  for  himself,  and  find  some  solution,  it  is  an 
attempt  for  which  he  is  disqualified  by  his  previous 
habits.  Instead  of  being  accustomed  to  reflect  upon 
his  own  labors,  to  investigate  the  reasons,  the  why  and 
the  wherefore  of  them,  he  has  gone  through  them  me- 
chanically, like  a  dray  horse  ;  he  has  never  even  dream- 
ed that  they  could  furnish  occasion  for  sober  and  intense 
study.  If,  aroused  for  the  first  time  to  this  truth,  he 
sets  himself  to  reflect  closely  upon  tlie  case  before  him, 
he  has,  to  guide  his  inquiries,  no  knowledge,  either  of 
the  laws  which  occasion  this  novel  difficulty,  or  of 
those  other  laws,  which  might  have  furnished  a  remedy. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  that  a  farmer,  accustomed  to 
till  a  certain  soil,  were  to  remove,  where  he  is  called  to 
deal  with  one  entirely  different.  Having  found,  on  his 
first  farms,  that  plaster,  and  certain  systems  of  culture,, 
were  profitable,  he  will  proceed,  if  he  be  one  of  your 
practical  farmers,  who  trusts  entirely  to  experience,  and 
laughs  at  book-learning,  to  employ  the  same  system 
here.  Bui  perhaps  it  is  without  success.  His  plaster 
seems  to  kill  vegetation,  and  his  system  of  culture  ends 
in  a  meager  crop.     Now,  what  shall  he  do  '     Neitiicr 


THE  AllTS  DEPENDENT  ON  SCIENCE.  25 

his  own  experience,  nor  any  rules  tiiat  he  has  heard, 
from  his  fatiier  or  his  neighbors,  prepare  him  for  such 
an  emergency  ;  and  very  possibly  his  nev/  neighbors 
have  not  yet  discovered  the  proper  mode  of  treating 
the  soil  Avhich  they  cultivate.  His  only  alternative, 
therefore,  is  to  work  on,  at  random,  trying  one  experi- 
ment after  another,  having  no  principle  to  guide,  nc» 
precise  object  to  direct,  his  course ;  and  expending 
money  and  toil,  perhaps  for  years,  without  success. 

The  uninstructed  artist,  therefore,  is  not  prepared  for 
new  emergencies.  He  can  move  only  in  one  dull  rou- 
tine ;  and  over  that,  he  travels  almost  without  observa- 
tion or  thought.  If  he  had  been  accustomed,  however, 
from  youth,  to  regard  the  processes  of  his  art  as  speci- 
mens of  yet  more  extensive  operations,  which  God  is 
carrying  on,  throughout  all  Nature  ;  as  examples  of 
comprehensive  principles,  which  are  at  work  in'  all 
places  and  at  all  times,  and  which  embrace  innumera- 
ble other  instances,  generally  though  not  precisely  sim- 
ilar, lie  would  not  have  been  so  easily  baffled.  Hav- 
ing studied  and  mastered  the  great  laws  on  wliicli  his 
art  depends,  he  would  be  prepared  for  difficulties,  and 
often  would  have  converted  into  sources  of  profit,  what 
lias  now  proved  only  the  occasion  of  defeat  and  dis- 
appointment. He  would  have  found,  in  science,  not 
merely  tlie  experience  of  his  instructers  or  predeces- 
sors  in  the  same  art ;  but  the  experience   of   all 

MANKIND,     both     PHILOSOPHERS     AND     ARTISANS.       Thc 

very  object  of  science  is,  to  present  us  with  the  result 
of  all  their  observations  and  experiments,  on  any  given 
subject,  embodied  in  the  simplest  and  most  regular 
form. 

Take  the  farmer,  for  example,  to  whom  we  have  just 
referred.  Had  he  been  acquainted  with  a  small  work 
of  Sir  H.  Davy's,  entitled  '  the  Principles  of  Agricultu- 
ral Chemistry,'  or  with  a  similar  work,  by  Chaptal,  he 
w^ould  have  learned,  that  the  treatment  of  soils,  by  ma- 
nure, is  a  chemical  process ;  that  the  manure  required 
by  any  soil  depends  upon  the  constituents  of  that  soil, 

3  S.   A. 


26  THE   ARTS   DEPENDENT  ON  SCIENCE. 

and  the  proportion  in  which  they  are  combined ;  and 
that  it  is  in  the  power  of  the  chemist,  if  to  his  scientific 
knowledge  he  adds  experience,  to  determine,  before- 
hand, the  proper  quaUty  and  quantity  of  the  manure 
■which  outrht  to  be  apphed  in  any  given  case.  So  with 
the  gardener,  who,  laboring  in  a  particular  district,  has 
seen  great  benefits  result  from  the  mixture  of  different 
soils.  On  removing  to  another  district,  he  would  nat- 
urallv  expect,  if  he  relied  solely  on  his  experience,  to 
find  similar  effects  from  the  same  mixture.  But,  if  he 
be  a  scientific  gardener,  he  will  be  careful,  before  re- 
sorting to  that  mixture,  to  examine  his  new  soil,  both 
on  the  surface  and  at  some  depth.  He  will  find  out 
whether  it  has  the  same  essential  qualities ;  and  if  not, 
he  will  endeavor  to  ascertain  what  are  its  characteristic 
excellences  and  defects,  and  then  determine,  by  the 
apphcation  of  chemical  principles,  what  mixture  of  soil, 
or  what  sort  of  manure,  is  requisite. 


CHAPTER  III. 

OTHER  ADVANTAGES  WHICH  THE  INSTRUCTED   HAS  OVER  THE 
UNINSTRUCTED   ARTISAN. 

II.  A  second  and  n20st  important  advantage,  enjoy- 
ed by  the  artisan  who  combines  science  with  practical 
skill,  is  the  command  which  it  gives  him  over  sim- 
pler, cheaper,  and  more  cei'tain,  methods  of  attaining 
his  ends.  It  may  be  affirmed,  we  believe,  with  entire 
safety,  that  there  is  no  art,  the  processes  of  which  are 
yet  reduced  to  their  utmost  simpUcity.  Not  only  are 
inventions,  at  their  first  introduction,  encumbered  with 
much  that  is  extraneous  and  unnecessary,  but  even  pro- 
cesses, which  have  been  transmitted  from  age  to  age, 
instead  of  becoming  more  simple,  appear,  in  many 
cases,  to  have  gathered  intricacy  from  time.  Take,  for 
example,  the  manufacture  of  soap,  one  of  the  most  sim- 


THE  ARTS  DEPENDENT  ON  SCIENCK.  27 

pie  as  well  as  ancient  of  arts.  It  is  capable  of  demon- 
stration; that  this  process,  as  generally  conducted,  is  de- 
fective in  several  respects  ;  and  that,  by  substituting,  in 
some  cases,  different  materials,  and  in  others,  new  modes 
of  treating  them,  an  essential  saving  might  be  realized, 
both  of  materials  and  time. 

Another  cause,  which  seriously  interferes  with  success 
in  the  arts,  is,  the  sjiurious  quality  of  many  of  the  sub- 
stances employed.  Without  some  means  of  detecting 
adulterations,  the  artist  must  often  use  substances  defi- 
cient in  the  qualities  required,  and  of  course  his  results 
must  be  uncertain  and  unsatisfactory.  Now,  all  these 
difficulties  might  be  obviated,  by  a  moderate  acquaint- 
ance with  chemistry  and  mechanical  philosophy.  These 
sciences  suggest  simple  but  yet  certain  means  for  test- 
ing the  purity  of  substances,  and  they  point  out,  at  the 
same  time,  the  shortest  path  to  any  required  object. 
How  wonderfully  have  the  processes  of  bleaching, 
and  tanning,  and  sugar-refming,  been  simplified  and 
abridged,  since  they  first  attracted  the  attention  of 
chemists  !  What  immense  improvements  are  constant- 
ly taking  place,  in  the  machinery  of  our  large  factories  ! 
Indeed,  there  is  no  department  of  life,  in  which  a  know- 
ledge of  science  does  not  serve  to  simplify  and  improve 
our  operations.  '■'  Though  a  man,"  says  Lord  Brougham, 
*'  be  neither  a  mechanic  nor  a  peasant,  but  only  has  a 
pot  to  boil,  he  is  sure  to  learn,  from  science,  lessons, 
which  will  enable  him  to  cook  his  morsel  better,  save 
his  fuel,  and  both  vary  his  dish  and  improve  it."  The 
art  of  good  and  cheap  cookery  is  intimately  connected 
with  the  principles  of  chemical  philosophy,  and  has  re- 
ceived much,  and  will  yet  receive  more,  improvement, 
from  their  applications.  It  will  be  sufficient,  under 
this  head,  to  add  two  other  illustrations,  which  we  bor- 
row from  Mr.  Herschel's  admirable  '  Discourse  on  the 
study  of  Natural  Philosophy.' 

'•In  the  granite  quarries,  near  Seringapatam,  the 
most  enormous  blocks  are  separated  from  the  solid  rock, 
by  the  following  neat  and  simple  process.     The  work 


28  THE   ARTS  DEPENDENT  OX  SCIENCE. 

man,  having  found  a  portion  of  the  rock  sufficiently 
extensive,  and  situated  near  the  edge  of  the  part  already 
quarried,  lays  bare  the  upper  surface,  and  marks  on  it  a 
line,  in  the  direction  of  the  intended  separation,  along 
which  a  groove  is  cut,  with  a  chisel,  about  a  couple  of 
inches  in  depth.  Above  this  groove,  a  narrow  line  of 
fire  is  then  kindled,  and  maintained  till  the  rock  below 
is  thoroughly  heated,  immediately  on  which,  a  line  of 
men  and  women,  each  provided  with  a  pot  full  of  cold 
water,  suddenly  sweep  oft'  the  ashes,  and  pour  the  Ava- 
ter  into  the  heated  groove,  when  the  rock  at  once  splits, 
with  a  clean  fracture.  Square  blocks,  of  six  feet  in  the 
side  and  upwards  of  eighty  feet  in  length,  are  some- 
times detached,  by  this  method,  or  by  another  equally 
simple  and  efficacious,  but  not  easily  explained,  without 
entering  into  particulars  of  mineralogical  detail." 

'•'  Hardly  less  simple  and  efficacious  is  the  process, 
used  in  some  parts  of  France,  where  millstones  are 
made.  When  a  mass  of  stone,  sufficiently  large,  is 
found,  it  is  cut  into  a  cylinder,  several  feet  high,  and 
the  question  then  arises,  how  to  subdivide  tins  into  hor- 
izontal pieces,  so  as  to  make  as  many  millstones.  For 
this  purpose,  horizontal  indentations,  or  grooves,  are 
chiselled  out,  quite  round  the  cylinder,  at  distances  cor- 
responding to  the  thickness  intended  to  be  given  to  the 
millstones,  into  which  wedges  of  dried  wood  are  driven. 
These  are  then  wetted  or  exposed  to  the  nightdew ; 
and  next  morning,  the  different  pieces  are  found  sepa- 
rated from  each  other,  by  the  expansion  of  tlie  wood, 
consequent  on  its  absorption  of  moisture  ;  an  irresistible 
natural  power  thus  accomplishing,  almost  without  any 
trouble  and  at  no  expense,  an  operation,  which,  from 
the  peculiar  hardness  and  texture  of  the  stone,  would 
otherwise  be  impracticable,  but  by  tlie  most  powerful 
machinery,  or  the  most  persevering  labor." 

III.  A  third  advantage,  which  the  practical  man  de- 
rives from  science,  is,  that  it  enables  him  to  appreciate 
proposed  improvements.  The  arts  of  the  present  age 
are   characterized   by  nothing  more  striking,  than  by 


THE   ARTS  DEPENDr.XT  ON  SCIE.VCE.  29 

their  rapid  and  almost  incredible  progress.*  Competi- 
tion is  so  eager,  and  economy  in  operations  so  indis- 
pensable, that  there  is  a  perpetual  tasking  of  the  human 
intellect,  to  invent  some  cheaper,  neater,  or  more  rapid, 
combination.  Hence  it  is,  that  one  improvement  is 
scarcely  introduced,  before  another  supersedes  it.  A 
thousand  minds  are  engaged,  perhaps  at  the  same  time, 
in  the  earnest  pursuit  of  some  contrivance,  which  will 
enable  them  to  save  a  small  fraction  in  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction ;  and  such  contrivance,  when  once  discovered, 
must  either  be  adopted  by  all,  or  be  the  means  of  di- 
verting to  its  fortunate  proprietor  the  entire  profits  of 
the  trade.  It  becomes,  therefore,  an  object  of  the  ut- 
most importance  to  the  mechanic  and  manufacturer, 
to  be  able,  when  a  new  method  is  proposed,  to  judge 
intelligently  of  its  claims.  He  is  to  be  equally  on  his 
guard  against  the  skepticism  which  unhesitatingly  con- 
demns all  new  systems,  and  adheres,  most  pertinacious- 
ly, to  whatever  is  old  ;  and  against  that  credulity  which 
is  ready  to  yield  a  blind  and  implicit  assent  to  the 
promises  of  interested  projectors.  But  nothing,  evi- 
dently, can  save  him  from  one  or  other  of  these  ex- 
tremes, but  that  knowledge  of  principles,  which  will 
enable  him  to  weigh  the  reasons  for  any  proposed  im- 
provement, and  to  estimate  its  probable  value.  And 
as  such  knowledge  is  necessary,  that  he  may  appreci- 
ate improvements,!  so  is  it  necessary  to  assist  him  in 

*  The  increasing  powers  of  the  steani-Ioom  are  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing statement,  furnished  by  a  manufacturer. 

"  A  very  good  hand-weaver,  twenty -five  or  thirty  years  of  age,  will 
weave  tv:o  pieces  of  9-Sths  shirting  a  week. 

"  In  1S23,  a.  steam-loom  weaver,  about  fifteen  years  of  age,  attend- 
ing two  looms,  could  weave  seven  similar  pieces  in  a  week. 

*'  In  1826,  a  steam-loom  iceaver,  about  fifteen  years  of  age,  attend- 
ing two  looms,  could  weave  twelve  similar  pieces  in  a  week  ;  some, 
could  weave  _^//ce«  pieces. 

"  In  1833,  a  steam-loom  u-eavcr,  from  fifteen  to  twenty  years  of 
age,  assisted  by  a  girl,  about  twelve  years  of  age,  attending  fonr 
looms,  could  weave  eighteen  similar  pieces  in  a  week  ;  some  could 
weave  twenty  pieces." 

tDr.  Ure  states,  in  his  Philosophy  of  Manufactures,  that  "pro- 
digious sums  are  wastefully  expimded,  every  vear,  by  manufacturers, 


30  THE   ARTS  DEPENDENT  ON  SCIENCE. 

introducing  and  applying  them.  In  the  present  state 
of  the  arts,  and  especially  of  important  branches  of 
manufacture,  it  is  no  longer  safe,  says  Judge  Story,  to 
be  ignorant.  "  It  is  not  mere  dexterity  of  hand,  or 
mechanical  adroitness  or  industry,  that  can  secure  to 
an  individual  a  successful  issue  in  his  business.  With- 
out some  science,  to  master  improvements,  as  they  oc- 
cur, and  to  keep  up,  in  a  measure,  with  the  spirit  of  the 
age,  it  will  often  happen  that  a  mechanic,  before  he  has 
reached  the  middle  of  life,  will  find  himself  superseded 
by  those  who,  though  much  younger,  have  begun  life 
under  more  favorable  auspices." 

A  fourth  advantage  which  science  gives  the  instruct- 
ed over  the  uninstructed  artisan  is,  that  it  enables  him 
to  become  an  improver  of  the  art  at  ivhich  he  ivorks, 
and  even  a  discoverer  in  the  sciences  connected  with  it. 
He  is  daily  handling  the  tools  and  materials,  with  which 
new  experiments  are  to  be  made,  and  daily  witnessing 
the  operations  of  Nature,  whether  in  the  motions  and 
pressure  of  bodies,  or  in  their  chemical  actions  on  each 
other.  All  opportunities  of  making  experiments  must 
be  unimproved,  all  appearances  must  pass  unobserved, 
if  the  artist  has  no  knowledge  of  principles ;  but,  with 
this  knowledge,  he,  of  all  men,  is  most  likely  to  strike 
out  something  new,  which  may  be  useful  in  art,  or  cu- 
rious and  interesting  to  science.*  His  practised  eye 
and  dexterous  hand  enable  him  to  embrace  the  many 
opportunities  aflbrded  him  for  such  improvements ; 
and,  if  he  labors  in  a  large  manufactory,  both  the 
motive  and  opportunity  to  make  them  are  peculiarly 
great.     The  processes  being  on  a  large  scale,  and  con- 

which  would  be  saved  by  a  more  thorough  acquaintance  with  the 
principles  of  science  and  art,"  which  apply  to  their  business  ;  that 
"  crafty  projectors  are  perpetually  pressing  hazardous  innovations 
upon  their  adoption,"  and  that  he  "  has  known  not  a  few  cases, 
where  a  complete  system  of  good  machines,  capable  of  doing  excel- 
lent work,  had  been  capriciously  turned  out  of  a  cotton  factory,  and 
replaced  by  another,  of  greater  expense,  but  of  less  productive  pow- 
ers." 

*  See  Brougham's  Discourse  on  the  Advantages  of  Science. 


THE   ARTS  DEPF.NDKNT  ON   SCIENCE.  31 

sequently  very  expensive,  it  becomes  the  more  impor- 
tant to  devise  means  of  saving  material  and  labor,  while 
the  very  magnitude  of  these  processes  often  brings  out 
facts  and  principles  which,  in  ordinary  operations, 
would  have  remained  imperceptible.  But  the  impor- 
tance, in  this  respect,  of  scientific  attainments  will  be- 
come more  apparent,  if  w'c  consider  the  following  qual- 
ifications, which  are  absolutely  necessary  to  enable  any 
one  to  become  the  author  of  important  improvements 
in  the  arts. 

I.  He  mu^t  know  enough  of  the  laws  of  Nature, 
not  to  attempt  imjjossibilities.  Nature  itself  has  placed 
insuperable  difficulties  in  the  way  of  many  of  the  ob- 
jects which  have  exercised  the  ingenuity,  and  wasted 
the  property  and  lives,  of  ardent  but  ignorant  inquirers. 
Wiio,  for  example,  that  were  acquainted  with  the  laws 
of  chemical  composition,  or  with  the  physical  constitu- 
tion of  man,  would  have  spent  their  lives  and  fortunes, 
as  the  alchymists  did,  in  the  pursuit  of  the  philoso- 
pher's stone,  or  the  elixir  of  life!  Who,  that  under- 
stands the  laws  of  motion  and  gravitation,  would  ever 
hope  to  invent  perpetual  motion,  or  a  machine  to  mul- 
tiply force  and  velocity  at  the  same  time  ?  How  many 
monuments  of  the  ignorance  of  their  projectors  do  we 
find  in  the  models  of  a  patent-office,  and  indeed  in 
many  of  the  undertakings  of  common  life  !  One  man 
attempts  what  tiie  laws  of  Nature  have  peremptorily 
forbidden.  Another  attempts  an  object,  practicable  in 
itself,  but  by  means  totally  inadequate  or  inappropriate. 
This  one  opens  a  mine,  establishes  machinery,  and  ex- 
pends a  hundred  thousand  dollars,  to  discover, — what  a 
geologist  would  iiavc  told  him  at  the  outset, — that  no 
ore  can  be  obtained.  Another  man  proposes  to  in- 
crease the  heat  of  his  furnace,  by  forcing  in  steam  in- 
stead of  air,  and  the  result  is,  that  the  fire,  instead  of 
being  increased,  is  blown  out ;  a  result  which  a  slight 
knowledge  of  chemistry  would  have  prepared  him  to 
expect.     A  third  projector  prepares  a  vessel*  for  sub- 

*  Sfe  page  74. 


32  THE   ARTS  DEPEXDEXT   ON   SCIENCE. 

marine  examinations  ;  but,  not  estimating,  properly, 
the  pressure  of  water,  at  different  depths,  is  crushed  to 
death  during  the  first  experiment.  How  important, 
then,  to  gather  from  science  the  Hght  necessary  to  pro- 
tect us  from  the  delusions  of  an  excited  imagination, 
and  to  guide  us  in  the  Avay  of  safe  and  profitable  en- 
terprise ! 

II.  When  occupied  with  inventions,  in  any  depart- 
ment of  the  arts,  the  inventor  ought  to  be  informed  of 
the  improvements  which  have  been  already  made  in 
that  department ;  otherwise,  he  may  consume  his  time, 
labor,  and  money,  in  merely  reproducing  what  has  long 
existed  ;  and  that,  too,  perhaps,  in  a  preferable  form. 

III.  He  must  have  sufficient  acquaintance  with  the 
sciences  related  to  his  pursuits,  to  resolve  the  various 
questions  which  will  occur,  in  the  progress  of  an  inven- 
tion. It  is  obvious,  that,  after  the  first  and  most  im- 
portant step  is  taken,  in  the  inventive  process  ;  after 
the  important  principle  has  been  mastered,  and  light 
seems  to  shed  itself  over  the  whole  inquiry  ;  many  ob- 
stacles are  still  to  be  overcome,  many  unexpected  diffi- 
culties are  to  be  met,  many  toilsome  days  and  nights 
consumed  in  nice  adjustments  and  alterations.  In 
some  instances,  utter  failure  has  resulted,  at  this  stage 
of  the  process,  for  the  want  of  the  requisite  knowledge  ; 
and  in  others,  important  inventions  have  been  arrested 
and  painfully  delayed,  from  the  same  cause.  It  is  stat- 
ed, that,  after  Fulton  had  securely  achieved,  in  his  ovrn 
opinion,  the  invention  of  the  steam-boat,  months  were 
consumed  by  him  in  making  the  necessary  calculations 
upon  the  resistance  of  fluids,  in  order  to  ascertain  what 
was  the  best  form  of  the  boat,  to  secure  a  successful 
issue  to  his  experiment.  It  is  also  stated,  by  Judge 
Story,*  who,  in  the  course  of  his  judicial  labors,  has 
had  occasion  to  examine  the  history  of  the  card- 
"Tiachine  of  Whittemore,  and  of  the  nail-machine  in- 
vented by  Perkins,  that  half  the  labors  of  those  ex- 

*  Sec  Lecture  hefore  the  Boston  ^lechanics'  Institution,  November. 
1829. 


THE  ARTS  DEPENDENT  ON  SCIENCE.  33 

traordinary  men  would  have  been  saved,  if  they  had 
been  originally  instructed  in  the  principles  of  mechani- 
cal science.  '•'  It  is  certain,"  he  adds,  "  tiiat,  with  his 
later  acquirements  in  science,  one  of  them  would  not 
have  laid  aside,  for  a  long  time,  the  creations  of  his 
own  genius,  as  if  in  despair  that  it  could  ever  attain 
maturity."  If  it  be  objected,  here,  that  inventions  are 
often  made  by  men  unacquainted  with  science,  we 
may  admit  it,  without  impairing,  materially,  the  force 
of  our  argument.  Accident  will  sometimes  cast  up 
important  improvements,  in  such  a  way,  that  the  artist 
can  hardly  fail  to  seize  upon  them.  It  will  generally 
be  found,  however,  even  in  these  cases,  that  the  inven- 
tion is  not  matured,  without  the  aid  of  the  man  of  sci- 
ence. But,  in  a  large  proportion  of  instances,  improve- 
ments are  not  only  perfected,  but  originally  made,  by 
him.  It  has  often  happened,  that  substances  and 
processes,  though  brought  to  light,  have  remained  un- 
employed, for  centuries,  owing  to  the  want  of  some 
sagacious  and  enlightened  mind,  to  apply  them  to  their 
appropriate  uses.  And  when  we  trace  the  history  of 
Inventors,  whose  names  do  we  find  most  illustrious  on 
the  roll?  Are  they  not  the  names  of  Archimedes, 
GctUIeo.  Huijgens,  Hooke,  Otto, — Guericke,  Volta, 
Franklin,  JVatt,  Davy,  JJollaston,  and  others,  names 
more  eminent  in  science  than  even  in  art.  The  truth 
is,  that  but  comparatively  few  inventions  have  been 
produced  by  accident,  or  by  uninstructed  artisans. 
They  are  generally  made  by  persons  of  competent 
knowledge,  who  are  in  pursuit  of  them.  What  en- 
abled Watt  to  make  his  improvement  on  the  steam- 
engine,  but  those  hints  which  he  derived  from  the 
chemical  lectures  of  Dr.  Black,*  and  those  mathemati- 
cal and  mechanical  attainments  which  he  derived  from 
constant  and  arduous  study  ?  Even  Arkwright,  who 
has  often  been  quoted  as  an  instance  of  an  uninstruct- 

•  In  a  work  lately  published,  extracts  are  given  from  some  of  the 
papers  of  Mr.  Watt,  denying  his  indebtedness  to  Black.  Whatever 
may  be  the  fact,  Watt  doubtless  owed  his  invention  to  study,  not  ac- 
cident. 


34  THE  ARTS  DEPENDENT   OX  SCIENCE. 

ed  inventor,  is  now  known  to  have  been  a  man  perfect- 
Iv  conversant  with  machinery,  and  to  have  devoted  at 
least  five  vears  to  the  invention  of  the  spinning  jenny ; 
and  then,  he  was  obhged  to  call  in  the  aid  of  others. 
Sir  H.  Davy  discovered  his  admirable  safety  lamp,  by 
which  so  many  lives  have  been  saved  in  the  EngUsh 
mines,  only  after  a  long  series  of  philosophical  experi- 
ments, on  which  he  bestowed  the  utmost  powers  of  his 
great  mind.  And  it  is  stated,  by  Lord  Brougham,  that 
the  new  process  of  sugar-refining. — by  which  more 
money  has  been  made,  in  a  shorter  time  and  with  less 
risk  and  trouble,  than  was  ever,  perhaps,  gained  from 
an  invention,  before, — was  discovered  by  a  most  ac- 
complished chemist,  and  was  the  fruit  of  a  long  course 
of  experiments,  in  the  progress  of  which,  kno^^■n  phi- 
losophical principles  were  constantly  applied,  and  one 
or  two  new  principles  ascertained.* 

A  brief  survey  of  the  history  of  the  arts  will  conduct 
us  to  the  same  conclusion.  We  shall  find,  that  im- 
provements in  these  arts  have  generally  been  preceded 
by  discoveries  in  science  :  and  that,  when  the  latter  has 
slumbered,  the  former  have  remained  nearly  stationary. 
In  the  long  lapse  of  time  which  intervened  from  Archi- 
medes to  Galileo,  scarcely  one  important  discovery  was 
made,  in  mechanical  philosophy  :  and  it  is  not  a  little 
curious,  that,  during  the  same  period,  hardly  any  prog- 
ress was  made,  in  the  mechanic  arts.  The  same  night 
which  shrouded  the  genius  of  discovery  seemed  to 
brood  over  the  talent  for  invention.  Xo  sooner,  how- 
ever, did  Galileo  perceive  those  great  truths  which  have 
immortahzed  his  name  as  a  philosopher,  than  he  began 
to  apply  some  of  them  to  the  combinations  of  art ;  and 
the  impulse  whicli  he  gave  to  the  spirit  of  discoverv  ex- 
tended itself  to  invention,  and  has  rendered  the  progress 
of  science  and  art,  ever  since,  one  and  indivisible.  It 
is  within  the  last  seventy-five  years,  however,  that  this 
connexion  has  been  most  striking  and  apparent.  Dur- 
ing this  period,  chemistry  has  taken  its  rank  among  the 

*See  Lord  Brougham's  Discourse  on  the  Advantages  of  Science 


THE  ARTS  DEPENDENT  ON  SCIENCE.  35 

sciences ;  unprecedented  advances  have  been  mad^  in 

mechanics  and  physics  ;  and  even  geology,  mineralogy, 
and  physiology,  have  received  most  important  and  un- 
expected accessions.  Now,  it  is  precisely  during  this 
same  period,  that  the  useful  arts  have  pressed  forward, 
with  the  most  rapid  strides.  Scarcely  a  discovery  has 
been  made  in  science,  which  has  not  forthwith  been 
turned  to  some  useful  account.  The  steam-engine ; 
the  use  of  chlorine,  in  bleaching ;  the  varied  and  import- 
ant applications  o( platinum,  chrome,  iodine,  and  other 
substances,  which  have  been  brought  to  light  entirely 
by  the  researches  of  the  chemist ; — are  but  a  few  among 
many  instances  of  the  service  wiiich  has  been  rendered 
to  the  arts  of  industry,  by  the  labors  and  discoveries  of 
science. 

We  have  thus  enumerated  some  of  the  practical  ad- 
vantages which  flow  from  the  application  of  science  to 
the  arts.  There  are  other  advantages,  of  a  moral  and 
intellectual  character,  which  are  entitled  to  at  least  a 
passing  notice.  The  habit  of  studying  the  theory  as 
well  as  the  practice  of  an  art,  cannot  but  have  the  hap- 
piest influence,  in  enlarging  and  liberalizing  the  mind. 
It  leads  the  artist  to  regard  his  occupation  as  something 
more  than  mechanical  drudgery  ;  as  a  liberal  and  intel- 
lectual pursuit,  fitted  to  exercise  the  powers  of  his  mind, 
and  to  raise  his  thoughts  from  the  humble  workmanship 
of  man  to  that  vaster  mechanism,  which  bespeaks  the 
wisdom  and  power  of  the  Almighty.  It  affords  un- 
failing topics  for  reflection  and  conversation,  during  his 
hours  of  labor,  and  provides  resources  of  an  intellectual 
character,  on  which  he  can  draw,  in  seasons  of  leisure 
and  at  the  advance  of  old  age.  It  seems,  indeed,  high 
time,  that  the  years  which  have  hitherto  been  employed 
by  the  apprentice,  in  learning  the  mere  handicraft  of 
his  art,  should  be  employed,  in  part  at  least,  in  study- 
ing its  principles,  and  in  tracing  the  operation  of  those 
principles  throughout  the  works  of  Nature.  It  is  more 
than  time,  that  a  higher  moral  and  intellectual  taste 
should  be  cultivated  among  the  artisans  of  every  coun- 


36  SU5DIARY  OF  PKIXCIPLE5,  IX  PART  1 

try,  and  that  hours,  now  wasted  in  dissipation  or  fnt- 
tered  away  in  frivolous  reading  and  conversation,  should 
be  devoted  to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  and  the  cul- 
tivation of  virtue.  In  an  age  like  this,  when  every  spe- 
cies of  manual  labor  is  rendered  more  and  more  preca- 
rious, by  the  changes  which  are  perpetually  taking  place 
in  the  arts,  it  is  the  obvious  interest  of  the  laboring  man, 
to  prepare  himself,  by  reading  and  reflection,  either  to 
embrace  a  new  employment,  or  to  conform  himself 
to  sudden  and  unexpected  vicissitudes.  Independent, 
however,  of  interest,  there  are  Jiigher  considerations, 
which  address  him  as  an  intelligent  and  immortal  being, 
and  which  urge  him  to  embrace  the  opportunities  for 
improvement  which  have  been  vouchsafed  him  by  a 
kind  Providence,  even  in  his  ordinary  avocations. 


SUMJIARY  OF  PRINCIPLES,  IN  PART  I. 


IXTRODCCTIOX. 


I.  Though  naturally  inferior  to  many  of  the  animals, 
in  strength  and  agility,  man  becomes  their  superior,  by 
means  of  the  Arts. 

II.  These  Arts  are,  in  the  first  instance,  suggested  by 
necessity  ;  afterwards,  they  are  improved  by  Science. 

III.  The  application  of  Science  to  the  Arts  has  been 
neglected,  to  the  prejudice,  both  of  the  philosopher  and 
the  artisan.  The  discoveries  of  the  one  have  often  re- 
mained unproductive,  for  the  want  of  practical  knowl- 
edge ;  and  the  manual  skill  of  the  other  has  frequently 
accomplished  little,  because  it  required  the  aid  and 
guidance  of  Science. 

THE  ARTS  DErEXDENT  OX   SCIEXCE. 

I.  Material  substances  are  subject  to  fixed  laws. 

II.  They  cannot  be  employed,  except  in  obedience 
to  those  laws. 


SUMMARY  OF  PRINCIPLES,  IN   PART  I.  37 

III.  They  cannot  be  employed  in  obedience  to  such 
laws,  unless  the  laws  are  understood. 

IV.  And  tliey  cannot  be  understood,  without  Sci- 
ence. 

V.  Science  cannot  be  superseded  by  experience,  nor 
by  arbitrary  rules ;  since  these  teach  nothing  but  dis- 
connected facts  and  processes.  It  is  Science  alone  that 
teaches  us  laws  of  the  requisite  simplicity  and  gener- 
ality. 

VI.  A  knowledge  of  such  laws  confers  great  advan- 
tages on  the  laboring  man  : — 

1.  As  it  prepares  him  for  new  emergencies. 

2.  As  it  gives  him  command  of  the  simplest,  cheap- 
est, and  most  economical,  methods  of  attaining  his  ends. 

3.  As  it  enables  him  to  appreciate  proposed  improve- 
ments, especially  in  his  own  art. 

4.  As  it  qualifies  him  to  become  himself  an  inventor 
or  discoverer. 

5.  As  it  tends  to  enlarge  his  mind  and  improve  his 
moral  character. 


s.  A. 


PART  II. 

AGENTS  EMPLOYED  IN  THE  ARTS. 


Effects  are  produced  in  the  useful  arts,  chiefly  by 
the  powers  of  Nature.  Man  is  but  the  minister  or  agent 
of  these  powers.*  His  agency  is  confined,  for  the  most 
part,  to  such  an  arrangement  of  substances,  as  will  se- 
cure the  action  of  their  natural  properties.  He  can  do 
little  by  means  of  his  own  strength.  Even  the  move- 
ments of  his  body,  though  modified  by  the  principles 
of  life  and  volition,  are  still  subject  to  the  laws  of  mat- 
ter, and  arc  exerted  in  obedience  to  those  laws.  When 
he  acts  upon  other  bodies,  he  can  influence  them  only 
so  far  as  he  pays  strict  regard  to  their  qualities,  and  to 
the  relations  wliich  connect  them  with  surrounding  sub- 
stances. It  has  been  well  said,  that  he,  who  would  com- 
mand Nature,  must  first  learn  to  obey  her. 

One  principal  end  proposed  by  the  arts  is,  to  super- 
sede, as  far  as  possible,  the  necessity  for  man's  exerting 
his  physical  strength  at  all.  They  propose  to  substitute 
intelligence,  in  the  place  of  brute  force,  and  to  enable 
him  to  employ,  in  the  attainment  of  his  ends,  those 
mighty  agents  which  reside  in  the  material  world. 
Hence  it  may  be  useful,  before  we  take  up  the  several 
Arts,  to  consider  the  most  important  of  these  agents, 

*  Man,  according  to  Bacon,  has  a  twofold  office,  in  regard  to  Na- 
ture. He  is  first  to  interpret,  and  tlien  to  obey,  her  hiws.  His  prov- 
ince, as  an  intellectual  being,  is  to  ascertain  lier  mode  of  operating  ; 
as  an  active  being,  to  produce,  by  artificial  means,  and  for  some  use- 
ful purpose,  a  recurrence  of  her  operations.  "  Homo,  natura  min- 
ister et  interpret." — Man,  tlio  servant  and  mterpreter  of  Nature, — is 
the  phi"ase  witli  wliich  he  opens  his  Novum  Origanum,  and  forms  the 
fundamental  principle  of  his  method  of  philosophizing. 


40  CHEMICAL  AGENTS. 

and  also  the  machinery,  by  means  of  which  they  are 
brought  to  act  in  given  cases.* 

The  agents  employed  in  the  arts  are  of  two  kinds. 
Chemical  and  Mechanical. 


CHAPTER  I. 

CHEMICAL  AGEXTS. 

I.  (a.)  All  chemical  agents  act  in  obedience  to  one 
power  or  principle,  which  we  shall  endeavor  to  explain. 
It  is  called,  chemical  affinity.  By  this  affinity,  we  mean 
neither  more  nor  less  than  a  tendency  which  particles 
of  different  kinds  have  to  unite,  when  brought  very 
'near  each  other.j  This  tendency  is  apparent  in  cer- 
tain compounds ;  as,  for  example,  of  v.ater  and  alco- 
hol ;  which,  if  shaken  together,  will  remain  perman- 
endy  in  union  ;  whereas  oil  and  water,  though  agitated 
ever  so  much,  form  no  union,  but  will  separate  the  mo- 
ment they  are  allowed  to  subside.     The  reason  is,  that 

*  A  mechanical  manufacture,  being  commonly  occupied  with  one 
substance,  which  it  conducts  through  metamorphoses  in  regular  suc- 
cession, xaay  be  made  nearly  automatic  ;  whereas  a  chemical  manu- 
facture depends  on  the  play  of  delicate  alBnities  between  two  or  more 
substances,  which  it  has  to  subject  to  heat  and  mixture,  under  circum- 
stances somewhat  uncertain,  and  must  remain,  therefore,  to  a  corres- 
ponding extent,  a  manual  operation.  The  best  example  of  pure  chem- 
istry, on  self-acting  principles,  which  I  have  seen,  was  in  a  manufac- 
ture of  sulphuric  acid,  where  the  sulphur  being  kindled,  and  properly 
set  in  tram  with  the  nitre,  atmospheric  air,  and  water,  carried  on  the 
process,  through  a  labyrinth  of  compartments,  and  supplied  the  re- 
quisite heat  of  concentration,  till  it  brought  forth  a  finished  commercial 
product.  The  finest  model  of  an  automatic  manufacture,  of  mixed 
chemistry,  is  the  five-colored  calico  machine,  which  continuously  and 
spontaneously,  so  to  speak,  prints  beautiful  webs  of  cloth,  with  ad- 
mirable precision  and  speed.  It  is  in  a  cotton  mill,  however,  that 
the  perfection  of  automatic  industry  is  to  be  seen  :  it  is  there,  that 
the  elemental  powers  have  been  made  to  animate  millions  of  complex 
organs,  infusing  into  forms  of  wood,  iron,  and  brass,  an  intelligent 
agency. —  Ure. 

•f  Aflinity  must  ba  distinguished  from  cohesion.  Cohesion  unite* 
particles  of  the  same  kind  ;  affinity,  those  of  different  kindf. 


CHEMICAL  AGENTS.  41 

between  water  and  alcohol  there  is  an  affinity,  but 
none  between  water  and  oil. 

We  see  the  operation  of  affinity,  also,  in  solutions. 
A  liquid  dissolves  a  solid,  merely  because  the  particles 
of  the  liquid  have  an  affinity  lor  those  of  the  solid, 
stronger  than  the  cohesion  by  which  the  latter  are  held 
together.  Thus,  water  dissolves  sugar,  because  its 
affinity  for  the  saccharine  particles  is  greater  than  the 
cohesion  which  binds  these  particles  to  each  other.  It 
fails  to  dissolve  rosin,  (or  camphor,  except  in  a  slight 
degree,)  because,  in  these  substances,  there  is  either 
no  affinity  for  water,  or  this  affinity  is  so  weak,  that  it 
cannot  overcome  the  cohesion  which  unites  the  particles 
together.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  cohesion  opposes 
tlie  action  oi  affinity ;  and  that,  when  we  wish  substances 
to  unite,  by  their  affinities,  quickly,  and  in  large  quan- 
tities, we  must  take  measures  to  lessen  the  cohesion. 
This  is  effected  by  heat,  which  lessens  the  cohesion,  by 
causing  the  particles  of  the  body  to  recede  from  each 
other  ;  and  also  allows  the  particles  of  the  fluid  to  enter 
the  pores  of  the  solid.  It  is  also  effected  by  division 
of  the  solid  into  minute  parts,  by  agitation,  &c., — ex- 
pedients which  facilitate  the  action  of  affinity,  by  bring- 
ing the  two  substances  into  intimate  and  simultaneous 
contact.  This  explains  why  hot  liquids  are  more  pow- 
erful solvents  than  cold  ones ;  why  powdered  sugar 
dissolves  in  water  more  readily  than  lumps ;  and  why, 
in  order  to  assist  solution,  we  shake  or  agitate  the  con- 
taining vessel. 

(b.)  We  see,  then,  that  chemical  combinations  are 
caused  entirely  by  affinity,  and  could  not  exist  without 
it.  How  important  they  are  in  the  arts,  we  all  know. 
Many  solid  substances  would  be  of  no  use,  unless  we 
could  dissolve  them  ;  and  to  know  by  what  liquid  they 
can  be  dissolved,  and  what  causes  may  oppose  or  assist 
the  process,  is  evidently  of  the  higliest  importance. 

In  addition  to  this,  there  is  another  very  important 
property  which  characterizes  the  power  of  solution  in 
many  cases.     It  is  limited.     In  some  compounds,  bo- 


42  CHEMICAL  AGENTS. 

dies  may  be  united,  in  all  possible  proportions.  Equal 
measures  of  water  and  alcohol  may  be  united ;  or  one 
drop  of  the  former  with  a  gallon  of  the  latter ;  or  a  drop 
of  the  latter  with  a  gallon  of  the  former,  or  in  any  in- 
termediate proportions  ;  and,  in  every  case,  the  union 
will  be  perfect,  uniform,  and  permanent.  But,  in 
most  solutions,  the  liquid  cannot  combine  with  more 
than  a  certain  definite  quantity  of  any  solid  or  aeri- 
form body.  Thus,  water  can  only  take  up  a  certain 
known  weight  of  common  salt ;  or  alcohol,  of  cam- 
phor. Tlie  point,  at  which  the  dissolving  power  of  the 
liquid  ceases,  is  called  the  poiiit  of  saturation.  The 
liquid  itself  is  then  said  to  be  saturated.  When  solu- 
tions are  made,  as  in  the  arts,  on  a  large  scale,  it  is 
evidently  of  the  utmost  importance  that  ive  should 
know  where  this  point  of  saturation  stands,  that  we 
may  not  waste  time  and  material  in  attempting  to  push 
the  process  beyond  a  limit  fixed  by  the  inviolable  laws 
of  Nature. 

(c.)  Again.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that,  when  a  li- 
quid has  been  saturated  with  one  substance,  it  is  often 
capable  of  combining,  at  the  same  time,  with  a  second 
and  a  third.  Thus,  water,  which  has  taken  up  its  full 
proportion  of  common  salt,  will  dissolve  a  further  quan- 
tity of  Glauber's  salt,  and  a  yet  further  quantity  of 
Epsom  salt.  On  this  fact  is  founded  a  very  convenient 
process  for  obtaining  these  salts  from  sea-water,  (which 
always  contains  them,)  by  gradual  evaporation.  When 
a  given  quantity  of  the  water  is  evaporated  down  near 
to  the  point  at  which  tiie  least  soluble  salt  saturates  the 
liquid,  that  salt  will  begin  to  crystallize.  Thus  we  ob- 
tain common  salt.  A  still  further  evaporation  gives 
Glauber's  salt ;  and  the  remaining  liquid  holds  dis- 
solved a  quantity  of  Epsom  salt.  It  is  obvious,  that 
such  a  process  can  never  be  carried  on,  with  economy 
and  success,  without  a  knowledge  of  the  relative  solu- 
bility of  these  substances. 

(J.)  Having  noticed  the  case,  in  which  one  substance 
has  different  degrees  of  affinity  for  two  or  more  others, 


CHEMICAL   AGENTS.  43 

we  take  this  opportunity  of  presenting  a  striking  prin- 
ciple, which  apphes  in  many  such  cases.  The  difler- 
ence  in  tlie  affinity  may  be  so  great,  that  it  will  occasion 
both  decomposition  and  the  forming  of  a  new  compound. 
For  example  :  if  we  take  spirits  of  camphor,  (a  solution 
of  camphor  in  pure  alcohol,)  and  pour  a  little  water  to 
it,  wo  shall  find  the  camphor  precipitated,  in  a  solid 
form,  to  the  bottom.  The  reason  is,  that  the  alcohol 
has  a  much  greater  affinity  for  the  water  than  it  lias  for 
the  camphor ;  in  consequence  of  which,  the  latter  is 
separated,  and  resumes  its  solid  state,  and  a  new  com- 
bination is  formed  of  the  water  and  alcohol.  Here,  as 
a  substance  seems  to  make  choice  or  election  of  one 
substance  rather  than  another,  with  which  to  unite,  we 
apply  the  term  elective,  and  call  it  elective  affinity ;  and 
since  there  is  but  one  decomposition  and  one  new  com- 
pound formed,  it  is  called,  single  elective  affinity. 

There  is  another  case,  in  which  double  decomposition 
and  composition  will  take  place  ;  that  is,  the  two  origi- 
nal bodies  being  both  compound,  will  each  be  decom- 
posed, and  two  new  compounds  produced,  from  a  mu- 
tual exchange  of  ingredients.  For  example:  take  sugar 
of  lead  (which  is  a  compound  of  vinegar  and  lead)  and 
ivhite  vitriol,  (which  is  also  a  compound,  formed  by 
uniting  sulphuric  acid  with  a  metal  called  zinc.)  If 
these  substances,  in  a  state  of  solution,  be  mixed  ;  the 
vinegar  in  the  sugar  of  lead,  having  a  stronger  affinity 
for  the  zinc  of  the  other  compound  than  it  has  for  the 
lead,  will  forsake  the  latter  and  unite  with  the  zinc; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  sulphuric  acid,  having  a 
stronger  affinity  for  the  lead  than  for  zinc,  will  quit  the 
latter  and  unite  with  the  former.  Thus,  we  shall  have 
two  new  compounds  ;  the  one  composed  of  vinegar 
(or  acetic  acid)  and  zinc,  and  hence  called  acetate*  oj 

*  Chemical  compounds  have  names  so  aiTangcd,  as  to  iiidicate  the 
pimple  snlistances  of  which  they  are  composorl,  and  also  the  propor- 
tion in  which  those  snbstances  combine.  Thns,  when  an  acid  so 
conihines  with  an  oxide,  or  other  base,  as  to  neutralize  it  and  l)o 
itself  neutralized,  the  name  of  the  compound  is  formed  by  changing 
tlio  last  syllable  of  the  acid  from  »c  into  a/r.  or  from  ovx  into  ife 


44  CHEMICAL  AGENTS. 

zinc;  the  other,  of  sulphiwic  acid  and  lead,  and  hence 
called  sulphate  of  lead.  This  is  called  double  elective 
affinity.  This  beautiful  principle  affords  to  the  art- 
ist, who  understands  it,  a  ready  mode  of  separating  a 
solid  from  a  solution  ;  of  purifying  mixtures,  ^-c; 
and  is  of  most  extensive  application  in  the  useful  arts. 
II.  (a.)  We  come  now  to  another  modification  of  af- 
finity, still  more  curious  and  interesting.  In  the  com- 
pounds of  which  we  have  spoken,  the  affinity  exerted  is 
comparatively  weak.  The  compound  retains  the  proper- 
ties of  its  ingredients,  which  seem  unchanged  by  the  com- 
bination, and  takes  a  character  intermediate  between 
theirs, — a  circumstance  which  contributes  greatly  to 
the  usefulness  of  solutions,  and  without  which,  indeed, 
thev  could  have  none  of  their  present  value.  In  the 
mode  of  action  which  we  shall  now  consider,  and  which 
mav  be  termed,  by  way  of  eminence,  chemical  com- 
position, the  affinity  acts  with  more  energy,  the  union 
effected  is  more  intimate,  and  is  generally  attended 
with  such  an  entire  change  of  properties,  that  ice  can- 
not  discover  in  the  compound  any  trace  of  the  ingre- 
dients. Thus,  two  gases,  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  being 
combined,  in  certain  proportions,  form  water,  a  fluid 
substance,  entirely  destitute  of  the  characteristic  prop- 
erties of  either  of  its  constituents.  So,  if  mercury  be 
united  with  a  certain  proportion  of  chlorine,  which  is 
a  gas,  it  forms  a  solid,  Avell  knov\"n  in  medicine  by  the 
name  of  calomel,  and  which  differs  entirely  from  its 
ingredients,  in  form,  appearance,  and  taste,  and  in  its 
effects  on  the  animal  system.  So,  again,  if  we  unite  an 
acid  and  an  alkali,  as  oil  of  vitriol  and  soda,  a  com- 
pound results,  which  has  neither  the  intense  acidity  or 

Thus,  acetic  acid,  combined  with  zinc,  gives  aceti7/e  of  zinc  ;  acet- 
ot:s  acid,  combined  with  zinc,  v.^ould  give  acetiie  of  zinc.  An  acid 
takes  ic,  when  it  contains  a  larger  proportion  of  the  acidifying  princi- 
ple, that  is,  oxygen  :  ous,  when  it  contains  a  smaller  portion.  Thus, 
four  proportions  of  oxygen  give  nitro;.'s  acid,  five  proportions,  nitrfc 
acid.  Sec.  So  sulphate  of  lead  is  thus  called,  because  it  is  a  com- 
pound of  sulphuric  acid  and  lead.  In  this  compound,  there  are,  of 
course,  three  simple  substances,  oxygen,  sulphur,  and  lead. 


CHEMICAL  AGENTS.  45 

coiTOsive  power  of  t!ic  vitriol,  nor  the  acrid  bitterness 
and  power  over  color  of  the  alkali.  The  active  proper- 
ties of  each  substance  are  destroyed  or  neutralized,  and 
a  compound,  distinguished  for  its  mildness,  is  obtained  ; 
just  as,  in  the  preceding  case,  a  compound  of  very  ac- 
tive properties  resulted  from  the  union  of  ingredients 
comparatively  inert. 

(6.)  These  compounds  are  distinguished  by  another 
remarkable  characteristic.  Wherever  or  in  wiiatever 
quantity  found,  they  are  not  only  composed  of  the 
same  ingredients,  but  of  these  ingredients  combined 
in  exactly  the  same  proportion.  Thus,  if  water  be 
found  in  any  instance  to  consist  (as  it  always  docs,  if 
pure)  of  eight  parts  of  oxygen  and  one  of  hydrogen, 
it  may  be  assumed,  as  a  permanent  and  universal  law, 
that  all  other  pure  water,  wherever  obtained,  will  con- 
tain the  same  ingredients,  in  the  same  proportions. 
Were  these  ingredients  in  any  other  proportions,  the 
resulting  compound  would  not  be  water,  but  some  sub- 
stance of  very  different  properties  ;  and  this  conducts 
us  to  another  very  singular  law,  which  is,  that  the  same 
ingredients,  combining  in  different  proportions,  pro- 
duce compounds  differing  essentially,  not  merely  from 
the  ingredients  themselves,  but  also  from  one  anoth- 
er. The  union  of  mercury  and  chlorine,  in  07ie  propor- 
tion, gives  calomel,  a  useful  medicine  ;  while,  united 
in  a  different  proportion,  they  give  corrosive  sublimate, 
a  deadly  poison.  How  important  is  it,  for  all  who  pre- 
pare medicines,  or  any  com})ound  in  the  arts,  to  under- 
stand this  law.  If  ignorant  of  it,  they  have  no  securi- 
ty, either  that  they  will  obtain  the  compound  that  they 
desire,  or  that  some  other  one,  fatal  to  their  designs, 
may  not  be  produced.  The  following  example  will 
illustrate  the  importance  of  this  knowledge  to  the  med- 
ical practitioner.  Of  two  medicines,  either  might  be 
administered  separately,  without  injury,  and  perhaps 
with  benefit ;  whereas,  if  both  of  them  should  be  given 
in  conjunction,  or  at  nearly  the  same  time,  the  most 
dreadful  consequences  might  ensue  ;  since  the  product 


46  CHEMICAL  AGENTS. 

of  such  a  combination  might  be  poisonous.  And,  on 
the  other  hand,  two  useful  medicines  might  be  so  relat- 
ed, that,  if  administered  together,  the  one  would  com- 
pletely neutralize  the  other. 

(c.)  But  we  have  not  yet  unfolded  all  the  wonders  ot 
this  wonderful  principle.  We  have  seen,  that,  in  this 
class  of  chemical  compositions,  ingredients  may  unite  in 
different  proportions.  But  the  range  of  combination  is 
vastly  more  limited,  here,  than  in  the  case  of  solutions. 
There,  the  constituents  might  combine,  in  all  propor- 
tions, within  a  certain  limit.  But  here,  they  must  al- 
ways combine  in  the  proportion  of  certain  numbers, 
which  are  called  their  proportional  numbers.  Thus, 
in  whatever  compound  we  meet  with  oxygen,  we  shall 
find,  that  ns  n'lantity  may  be  expressed  by  eight,  or  by 
some  multiple  •  eight ;  as  sixteen,  twenty-four,  thirty- 
two,  forty,  &c.  Hydrogen  always  unites  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one,  or  of  some  multiple  of  one  ;  sulphur,  in 
the  proportion  of  sixteen ;  chlorine,  of  thirty-six,  &-c.* 

Where  the  compound  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two 
substances,  one  or  both  of  which  are  already  compound- 
ed, the  proportional  number  of  that  substance  will  be 
expressed  by  the  swn  of  the  proportional  numbers  of 
its  ingredients.  For  example  :  if  water,  a  compound 
of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  unites  with  lime,  it  will  be  in 
the  proportion  of  8-|-l=9f  (which  is  the  sum  of  hy- 
drogen and  oxygen)  to  20-j-8=2S  which  represent  the 
proportions  of  calcium  and  oxygen  in  lime.  It  is  also 
a  law  of  chemical  combination,  that  the  quantities  of 
any  two  substances,  which  combine  with  the  same  quan- 
tities of  a  third,  will  also  combine  with  one  another : 
that  is,  if  eight  parts  of  oxygen  will  combine  with  one 
part  of  hydrogen,  and  with  sixteen  parts  of  sulphur, 

*  This  is  called  the  law  or  principle  oi  definite  proportions. 

t  It  may  be  well  to  mention,  here,  for  the  benefit  of  those  readers 
who  are  not  familiar  with  mathematical  signs,  that-|-means  plus, 
more,  or  added  to  ; — minus,  less  ;X  multiplied  by  ;-^divided  by  ;= 
equal  to.  As  8-4-1=9  means,  S  plus  (or  more)  1  (or  1  added  to  8) 
equals  9  ;  9 — 1^8  means,  9  minus  (or  less)l  is  equal  to  8  ;  3X-4 
=12  means,  3  multiplied  by  4  is  equal  to  12  ;  12-t-4=3  means, 
12  divided  by  4  is  equal  to  3. 


MECHANICAL  AGENTS.  47 

tlieii  the  two  latter,  that  is,  one  of  the  hydrogen  and 
sixteen  of  sulphur,  will  combine  together. 

These  laws,  it  will  be  perceived,  must  give  great  sim- 
plicity to  chemical  combinations.  The  number  of  sim- 
ple substances,  which  play  an  important  part  in  such 
combinations,  is  small ;  and,  if  the  proportional  num- 
bers for  these  substances  be  remembered,  as  they  easi- 
ly may  be,  an  individual  can  determine  the  proportions 
in  which  tiic  ingredients  combine,  in  all  given  com- 
pounds, without  difficulty,  and  without  having  recourse 
to  books. 

Tliese  laws  of  aflinity,  which  we  have  thus  endeav- 
ored to  explain,  lie  at  the  foundation  of  all  chemical 
science,  and  admit  of  innumerable  applications  to  the 
useful  arts.  They  regulate  the  oper-?.^'ons<)i  the  bleach- 
er, dyer,  tanner,  brewer,  and  baker  •  ssist  or  mar  the 
labors  of  the  husbandman,  glassniaicer,  metallurgist, 
manufacturer,  iScc,  and  are  therefore  entitled  to  the  se- 
rious attention  of  all  persons  connected  with  these  im- 
portant pursuits.  It  will  be  our  object,  when  we  come 
to  treat  of  these  arts,  to  illustrate  the  applications  here 
referred  to,  at  greater  length,  and  to  show,  by  numer- 
ous examples,  the  necessity  of  understanding  a  principle, 
so  perpetually  at  work,  and  which  is  equally  powerful, 
whether  employed  as  an  auxiliary  or  encountered  as  an 
antagonist. 


CHAPTER  II. 

MECHANICAL  AGENTS  EMPLOYED  IN  THE  ARTS. 

Chemical  agents  act  only  at  insensible  distances,  and 
are  confined,  in  their  operation,  to  changing  the  inte- 
rior constitution  of  bodies.  Mechanical  agents,  on  the 
contrary,  act  at  sensible  distances,  leave  the  interior 
constitution  of  bodies  unchanged,  and  alter  only  the 
position  or  form  of  their  masses.  These  agents  are 
called  forces  or  prime  movers ;  and  comprehend  the 


48  MECHANICAL  AGENTS. 

strength  of  animals,  icater,  wind,  steam,  &lc.  Before 
we  enter  upon  the  examination  of  these  forces,  howev- 
er, it  will  be  necessary  to  exhibit,  in  few  words,  certain 
fundamental  laws  of  motion,  which  apply  to  all  bodies 
and  forces,  alike ;  and  wliich  ought  to  be  thoroughly 
understood,  by  every  person  who  is  engaged,  directly 
or  indirectly,  in  mechanical  operations. 

I.  The  first  law  is,  that  masses  of  matter  never 
change  their  state  of  motion  or  rest,  unless  extei'nal 
force  is  applied.  This  is  merely  saying,  in  other  v.'ords, 
that  matter  is  inert,  or  has  no  power  of  voluntary  action. 
That  a  body  never  passes  from  a  state  of  rest  to  that  of 
motion,  without  the  application  to  it  of  some  force,  is 
evident  enough  to  all.  But  it  is  not  so  evident,  that  a 
body,  once  in  motion,  vv'ould  never  stop,  except  from 
the  same  cause.  This  will  become  apparent,  however, 
if  Ave  consider,  that  a  body,  rolling  over  a  smooth  sur- 
face, will  continue  much  longer  in  motion,  than  if  the 
surface  be  rough  ;  and  that,  if  the  surface  be  thorough- 
ly polished,  and  very  hard,  a  top  has  been  known  to 
continue  spinning  upon  it,  for  hours.  If,  in  the  latter 
case,  we  could  do  away  friction,  entirely,  and  remove 
all  the  resistance  presented  by  the  air,  the  motion  would 
undoubtedly  continue  a  very  long  time  ;  and  we  know 
of  no  reason  why  it  should  ever  stop.  It  should  be 
added,  here,  that,  as  a  body  once  in  motion  has  no 
power  of  stopping  itself,  so  neither  has  it  any  power 
of  changing  its  rate  of  motion  ;  and  it  Vv'ill  continue, 
therefore,  to  move  for  ever,  with  unifoj'm  velocity,  un- 
less some  force  be  applied,  to  retard  or  accelerate. 

INERTIA  OF  BODIES. 

This  law,  which  is  commonly  called  the  laiv  of  iner- 
tia, suggests  some  very  important  rules  for  regulating 
motion  and  machinery,  and  serves  to  explain  a  great 
many  interesting  facts.  For  example :  if  you  would  put 
in  motion  a  large  mass,  you  must  take  time ;  since,  each 
particle  of  the  mass  being  inert,  the  inertia  of  the  whole 
can  only  be  overcome  gradually.     Hence,  a  judicious 


MECHANICAL  AGENTS.  49 

driver  never  strikes  his  horses  at  starling,  lest  the  sud- 
den exertion  of  their  strength  against  an  inert  load 
should  injure  them,  and  break  the  harness.  Hence, 
also,  on  railways,  they  connect  the  cars  by  flexible 
springs,  in  order  that  tiie  different  cars  may  be  put  in 
motion  one  after  another,  instead  of  compelling  the 
engine  or  horses  to  overcome  the  inertia  of  the  whole 
train  at  one  effort. 

We  see  the  same  principle  in  the  case  of  a  large  boat 
lying  in  water.  A  sudden  pull,  though  very  strong, 
seems  to  have  no  effect  upon  it ;  whereas,  a  slight  force, 
if  it  be  apphed  steadily,  till  it  has  had  time  to  pervade 
the  entire  mass,  will  produce  motion.  In  other  cases, 
however,  where  our  object  is  not  to  move  the  whole 
mass,  but  to  detach  a  small  part  of  it,  we  should  apply 
the  force  suddenly.  Thus,  in  breaking  oft"  fragments 
from  rocks,  metals,  pottery,  &c.,  the  blow  must  evident- 
ly be  violent,  that  the  part  may  be  broken  off',  before 
the  motion  communicates  to  the  whole  mass.  This 
explains  why  we  can  discharge  a  pistol  ball  through  a 
pane  of  glass,  without  breaking,  or  even  cracking,  any 
part,  except  just  that  through  which  the  ball  passes. 
Also,  why,  if  a  board  be  suspended  freely,  a  pistol  ball 
can  be  driven  quite  through  it,  without  communicating 
any  sensible  motion  to  the  board.  Also,  why  a  tallow 
candle,  discharged  from  a  musket,  can  be  driven,  like 
a  bullet,  through  a  pine  board  ;  and  why  a  cannon  ball, 
coming  from  a  great  distance,  and  moving  at  a  compar- 
atively slow  rate,  does  so  much  more  damage  than  a 
shot  coming  from  some  point  very  near. 

Thus  much,  respecting  the  application  of  this  law 
of  inertia  to  the  case  of  bodies,  which  are  to  be  put  in 
motion,  and  which  exhibit  a  tendency  to  rest.  It  ad- 
mits, also,  of  many  interesting  applications  to  bodies 
already  in  motion,  and  which  exhibit  a  tendency  to 
continue  this  motion.  Thus,  it  is  owing  to  inertia, 
that  we  find  it  so  difficult,  when  running  fast,  to  stop 
ourselves,  suddenly  ;  that  we  fall  over,  forwards,  if  the 
moving  surface,  on  which  we  have  been  standing,  as 
5 


50  MECHANICAL  AGENTS, 

the  bottom  of  a  wagon,  for  example,  is  unexpectedly 
stopped  ;  and  that  we  receive  such  severe  falls,  when 
we  leap  from  a  carriage  in  motion  to  the  ground.  To 
this  same  principle  we  are  to  refer  the  severe  concussion 
communicated  even  by  small  bodies,  when  they  are 
moving  rapidly.  It  should  be  remarked,  here,  that  the 
force  with  which  a  body  moves,  and  the  consequent 
efforts  which  it  makes  to  continue  in  motion,  depend  on 
the  velocity  as  well  as  on  the  quantity  of  matter.  A 
hammer  is  a  small  body  ;  but,  owing  to  the  great  veloc- 
ity which  is  communicated  to  it  by  the  arm,  as  it  de- 
scends, it  is  capable  of  inflicting  a  very  severe  blow. 
So  with  the  flail,  in  threshing ;  the  balls  used  in  mus- 
kets and  cannon  ;  the  battering  ram  of  the  ancients  ;  the 
pile-engine,  &.c.  Another  very  interesting  application 
of  inertia  is  in  the  fly-wheel,  which  is  used  in  machin- 
ery, for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  a  uniform  rate  of 
motion,  and  to  which  we  shall  have  occasion  hereafter 
to  refer. 

CENTRIFUGAL  FORCE. 

The  inertia  of  matter  gives  rise,  also,  to  a  different 
but  very  interesting  class  of  facts.  If  bodies  are  mov- 
ing, they  have  a  tendency,  as  we  have  seen,  to  continue 
in  motion,  with  uniform  velocity ;  and  we  now  add, 
that  this  tendency  is  always  to  carry  them  in  a  right 
line.  Hence,  if  they  move  in  curves,  there  is  a  con- 
tinual effort  to  take  a  rectilinear  course,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  tangents  to  those  curves.  This  eftbrt  is  called 
the  centrifugal  force  of  a  body,  and  has  a  very  impor- 
tant influence  on  the  motion,  both  of  bodies  in  space 
and  of  machinery.  We  have  familiar  examples  of  it, 
in  the  water  and  mud  v.iiich  fly  oft'  from  the  periphery 
of  carriage  wheels,  when  in  rapid  motion  ;*  in  the  force 
with  which  stones  escape  from  a  sling,  which  has  been 
whirled  rapidly  round  ;  in  the  greater  liabihty  of  a  car- 
riage to  upset,  when  it  is  turning  a  corner ;   in  the  hol- 

*The  velocity  given  to  grindstones,  in  some  manufactories,  is  so 
great,  that  fragments  are  broUen  off,  by  this  centrifugal  tendency. 

■A 


COMPOUND  MOTION.  51 

low  shape  which  the  water  in  a  vessel  assumes,  if  that 
vessel  be  revolved  quickly  round  its  axis,  &c.  &c. 
Valuable  use  is  made  of  this  centrifugal  tendency,  in 
the  construction  of  millstones, — the  grain  always  be- 
ing received  between  tiie  stones,  in  the  centre,  and 
carried  outwards  of  itself:  also,  in  the  lathe  which  is 
used  by  potters  and  glassmakers  ;  and,  above  all,  in  the 
machine  called  a  governor,  which  was  first  applied  by 
Watt,  to  regulate  the  supply  of  steam,  or  any  other 
moving  power,  to  machinery. 

Tlie  second  laiu  of  motion  is,  that  any  change  in 
the  place  of  a  body  must  be  proportioned  to  the  force 
impressed,  and  in  the  direction  of  that  force.  This  is 
sufficiently  evident,  in  the  case  of  a  single  force,  or  of 
two  or  more  forces  acting  in  the  same  right  line,  and 
when  the  body  is  free  to  move  in  the  direction  of  tliat 
line. 

COMPOUND  MOTION. 

There  are  other  cases,  however,  (as,  for  instance, 
that  of  a  boat  roAved  across  a  river  which  has  a  rapid 
current,)  in  which  the  body  is  acted  upon,  at  the  same 
time,  by  two  forces  at  certain  angles,  either  greater 
than,  equal  to,  or  less  than,  right  angles.  Thus,  if  a 
body  at  B,  Fig.  1,  be  acted  upon,  at  the  ^.^„  j 

same  instant,  by  two  forces,  at  right  an-  c  ■; y\  B 

gles  with  each  other,  one  impelling  it  to-       :        X 
wards  C,  and  the  other  towards  D,  it  is  im-       :    X 

portant  to  know  in  whatx direction  it  will  EX. D 

move,  and  at  what  rate.  Suppose,  that  the  first  force, 
acting  alone,  would  have  carried  the  body  through  the 
line  B  C,  in  one  second,  and  that  the  other  force,  act- 
ing alone,  would  have  carried  it  through  B  D,  in  the 
same  time  ;  acting  together,  they  must  carry  the  body, 
in  one  second,  to  a  point  which  shall  be  just  as  far  from 
B  D  as  C  is,  and  just  as  far  from  B  C  as  D  is  ;  that  is, 
to  E  :*   and  the  body  itself  will   have  described  the 

*  For  the  action  of  the  perpendicular  force  cannot  prevent  the  full 
effect  of  the  horizontal  ;  nor,  vice  versa,  would  the  action  of  the  hor- 
izontal force  prevent  the  full  effect  of  the  perpendicular  one.     There 


52  MECHANICAL  AGENTS. 

diagonal  of  the  parallelogram.  The  same  law  holds 
good,  whatever  be  the  inclination  of  the  forces ;  and 
hence  we  have  the  general  principle,  that  a  body,  act- 
ed upon  by  two  forces,  describes  the  diagonal  of  a 
imrallelogram,  the  sides  and  angles  of  ichich  repre- 
sent the  intensity  and  direction  of  those  two  forces ; 
and  will  do  this  in  the  same  time  in  which,  by  the 
action  of  one  of  the  forces,  it  would  have  described  a 
side,  and  with  a  uniform  velocity. 

From  this  principle  we  see  how,  in  machinery,  we 
may  substitute  two  forces,  acting  at  angles,  instead  of 
a  single  force  ;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  how  we  may 
substitute  one  force  instead  of  two,  tin-ee,  four,  or  more, 
forces.  Suppose  we  have  three  forces,  and  wish  to 
find  one  which  Avill  produce  the  same  eflect.  We 
must  determine  its  direction  and  intensity.  To  do 
this,  we  take  the  lines  representing  two  of  the  forces, 
and  construct  a  parallelooiam  from  them  ;  and,  in  the 
diagonal;  we  have  a  single  force  equivalent  to  the  two. 
Taking  this  diagonal,  with  the  third  force,  we  construct 
another  parallelogram ;  and  the  diagonal  of  this  last 
parallelogram  will  give  us  the  equivalent  of  all  the 
three  forces,  and  will  represent  its  intensity  and  direc- 
tion. 

CENTRE  OF   GRAVITY. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  applications  of  this  prin- 
ciple is,  in  investigating  the  properties  and  determining 
the  place  of  that  point  in  a  body,  which  is  called  its 
centre  of  gravity.  The  several  particles  of  matter  in 
a  body  being  solicited  by  gravity,  we  may  consider  it 
as  acted  upon  by  a  great  many  difterent  forces,  which, 
if  reduced  to  one.  will  always  pass  (whatever  be  the 
position  of  the  body)  through  a  certain  point  in  it, 
around  which  its  parts  seem  to  balance  each  other,  and 
which,  if  supported,  will  give   support   to   the  whole 

fore,  the  body,  at  the  end  of  a  second,  must  be  both  in  the  vertical 
line,  C  E,  and  in  the  horizontal  one,  D  E,  that  is,  at  E,  their  point 
of  intersection  ;  and  must  have  described,  during  this  instant  of  time, 
the  diagonal  line,  B  E. 


CENTRE   OF  GKAVITV.  53 

mass.  The  stability  of  edifices  and  other  masses  of 
matter  depends,  therefore,  on  the  position  of  their  cen- 
tre of  gravity.  If  a  hne,  drawn  from  this  centre,  per 
pendicular  to  the  horizon,  falls  within  the  base,  the 
body  will  evidently  stand  ;  and  its  stability  will  be 
greater,  the  further  that  line  falls  from  the  side  of  the 
base  ;  so  that  the  stability  is  greater,  in  proportion  to 
the  size  of  the  base,  as  compared  with  the  perpendicu- 
lar height  of  the  centre  of  gravity.  If  it  falls  without 
the  base,  the  body  will  fall  instantly  ;  if  upon  the  side 
of  the  base,  the  body  will  stand  with  what  is  termed 
unstable  equilibrium,  and  be  overthrown  by  the  ap- 
j)lication  of  the  slightest  force. 

AVhere  bodies,  like  carriages,  are  to  be  moved,  and  are 
subject  to  inclinations,  towards  one  side  and  another, 
it  is  necessary  to  place  the  centre  of  gi-avity  low ;  oth- 
erwise, a  slight  inclination  will  throw  the  perpendicular 
line  without  the  base,  and  cause  the  body  to  be  over- 
thrown. In  Fig.  2,  A  B  represents  a  pjg,  2. 
wagon,  on  the  slope  of  a  hill;  C  D 
represents  the  level  of  the  ground  ;  E  F 
the  base  of  the  wagon  and  the  slope 
of  the  hill.  If  the  wagon  be  so  laden, 
that  the  centre  of  gravity  be  at  B,  the 
l)crpeiKlicular,  B  E,  will  fall  within  the 
base,  and  the  wagon  will  stand.  But  if  the  load  be  so 
altered,  that  the  centre  of  gravity  be  raised  to  A,  the 
perpendicular,  A  C,  will  fall  outside  of  the  base,  and  the 
wagon  be  overset.  The  difficulty  which  the  young 
child  finds,  in  walking,  arises  principally  from  his  in- 
ability to  keep  the  centre  of  gravity  of  his  body  over 
the  base.  Quadrupeds  have,  in  this  respect,  an  ad- 
vantage over  the  young  of  other  animals. 

To  determine  the  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity  in 
a  body  is  important,  on  many  accounts ;  but  especially, 
because,  wlicn  a  force  is  to  be  applied  to  a  body  to 
move  it,  it  should  be  made  generally  to  pass  through 
the  centre  ;  otherwise,  a  rotary  as  well  as  progressive 
motion  would  be  communicated  to  the  bodv. 


54.  MECHANICAL  AGENTS. 

There  is  a  thii'd  law  of  motion,  which  is  generally 
called  the  principle  of  action  and  reaction.  It  consists 
in  the  fact,  that,  to  every  action  of  one  body  on  an- 
other, there  is  an  equal  and  contrary  reaction.  That 
is,  in  other  words,  if  I  strike  a  blow  with  my  fist,  the 
fist  receives  just  as  severe  a  blow  as  it  inflicts.  If  one 
vessel,  under  full  sail,  strike  against  another,  at  rest,  it 
receives  a  shock  just  as  great  as  that  which  it  commu- 
nicates. It  is  on  this  principle  that  a  bird  is  able  to 
support  itself  in  the  air,  by  beating  with  its  wings 
against  the  air  below.  This  air,  being  struck,  reacts 
against  the  body  of  the  bird,  with  a  power  sufficient  to 
keep  it  in  its  place,  or  to  enable  it  to  rise  and  fall,  at 
pleasure. 


CHAPTER  III. 

MECHANICAL  AGENTS  COXTI.XUED. 

Having  considered  the  tln-ee  fundamental  laws  of 
motion,  we  now  proceed  to  the  ft)rces,  which  may  be 
employed  to  produce  motion.  They  are  of  two  kinds, 
animate  and  inanimate. 

ANIMATE  FORCES. 

TJie  animate  forces  consist  of  the  strength  of  men 
and  animals.  As  this  depends  upon  the  principle 
of  life,  respecting  which  we  are  entirely  ignorant, 
and  as  the  strength  of  an  animal  is  influenced,  by  his 
constitution,  state  of  health,  the  climate  in  which  he 
lives,  and  various  other  causes,  it  is  impossible  to  as- 
certain the  laws  whicli  regulate  it,  as  accurately  as  we 
can  ascertain  those  which  regulate  inanimate  forces. 
Still,  many  experiments  and  calculations  have  been 
made,  and  principally  to  ascertain  the  most  advantage- 
ous modes  in  which  an  animal  can  be  worked ;  the 
velocity  and  load  with  which  he  can  work  most  effect- 
ively or  permanently  ;   the  relative  strength  of  different 


ANIMATE  FORCES.  55 

animals  ;  and  the  comparative  economy  of  using  them. 
It  has  been  ascertained, 

1.  That  the  most  advantageous  method  of  employ- 
ing the  strength  of  a  horse  is  in  the  act  of  drawing  a 
load  ;  and  the  least  advantageous,  in  carrying  a  load, 
especially  up  hill :  while,  as  one  might  infer  from  the 
perpendicular  position  and  structure  of  his  body,  the 
reverse  is  the  case  with  man,  and  that  rowing  is,  per- 
haps of  all  ways  of  applying  human  strength,  the  most 
eflective. 

2.  Tliat  an  animal  will  work  most  effectively,  from 
day  to  day,  if  his  velocity  be  small  and  his  load  large  ; 
that  the  working  rate  ought  never  to  be  more  than  one 
half,  nor  generally  more  tlian  one  third,  of  the  greatest 
velocity  with  which  the  animal  can  travel  without  load  ; 
and  that,  with  this  velocity,  his  load  should  never  be 
more  than  four  ninths  of  the  greatest  which  he  can 
bear.  Thus,  if  the  greatest  speed  with  which  a  horse 
can  travel,  without  a  load,  be  twelve  miles  per  hour, 
and  the  greatest  load  which  he  can  carry,  without 
njoving,  be  four  hundred  pounds,  he  will  work,  perma- 
nently, with  most  advantage,  when  his  rate  of  going  is 
four  miles  an  hour,  and  his  load  about  one  hundred 
and  eighty  pounds. 

3.  That  a  horse  can  exert  an  effective  force,  from 
day  to  day,  equal  to  that  of  six  men ;  and  an  elephant, 
a  force  equal  to  six  horses :  and, 

4.  That,  considering  the  expense  of  keeping  a  horse, 
which  is  not  greater  than  that  of  keeping  a  man,  nor 
more  than  one  sixth  of  that  of  keeping  an  elephant,  his 
fitness  for  different  kinds  of  service  and  any  kind  of 
road,  and  his  uniting  fleetness  with  strength,  he  pos- 
sesses a  great  advantage,  in  regard  to  economy  and 
convenience,  over  every  other  animal,*  for  general  use. 

In  regard  to  employing  human  force,  or,  in  other 
words,  the  strength  of  men,  it  is  obvious, 

*  Exception  must  be  made,  in  particular  climates,  in  favor  of  the 
camel,  mule,  &c.  ;  and,  in  our  own  country,  the  ox  is  to  be  prefer- 
red, for  farm-labor. 


56  MECHANICAL   AGENTS. 

1.  That  it  is  of  all  forces  the  most  expensive, — since 
it  costs  as  much  to  feed  a  man  as  a  horse,  while  he  can 
perform  only  one  sixth  part  of  the  service. 

2.  It  is  the  least  convenient,  since  the  power  of  the 
individual  is  confined  within  very  narrow  limits,  both 
of  speed  and  strength  ;  and.  in  many  kinds  of  work,  it 
is  impossible  to  employ  a  large  number  of  men  togeth- 
er. It  is  obvious,  for  example,  that  no  number  of  men 
would  be  able  to  drag  a  stage-coach,  at  the  rate  of 
twelve  miles  an  hour :  and,  to  show  the  comparative 
inefficiency  of  human  labor,  in  another  way,  we  may 
mention  the  statement  of  Homer,  that  twelve  women 
had  to  be  constantly  employed  at  the  hand-mills,  in  the 
house  of  Ulysses,  in  order  to  grind  corn  enough  for  his 
family, — a  work  which  might  have  been  performed  by 
a  very  small  stream  of  water,  or  by  a  single  horse. 

3.  Human  force,  vrhen  exercised  without  intelli- 
gence, has  a  degrading  influence  on  the  mind  and 
heart.  Hence,  wherever  we  can  substitute  animal  or 
other  brute  force  for  that  of  men,  we  are  bound  to  do 
it,  that  the  power  of  the  latter  may  be  reserved  for 
cases,  in  which  they  can  exert  intelligence  and  skill, 
and  have  scope  for  the  exercise  of  their  moral  aflec- 
tions.  Freemen  revolt  at  the  idea  of  being  chained  to 
the  cars  of  the  wealthy  or  powerful ;  or  at  taking  the 
place  of  brutes,  in  the  plough  or  at  the  mill.  Should 
they  not  be  equally  anxious  to  avoid  other  occupations, 
which  exert  no  healfhful  influence  on  the  character, 
and  which  could  be  performed  with  as  much  effect, 
and  with  greater  economy,  by  animals,  or  even  by  in- 
animate forces  ?  Examples  of  such  occupations  may 
be  found  in  churning,  threshing,  hai/^raking,  spinning- 
weaving,  dec.  d:c. 

INANIMATE  FORCES. 

Under  this  head  are  included,  gravity,  water,  icind, 
steam,  &c.,  which  may  all  be  referred,  indirectly,  to 
three  sources  :  to  wit,  gravity,  elasticity,  and  heat. 


GRAVITY.  57 

I.  Gravity. — As  a  moving  force,  gravity  acts  on 
solids,  JJuids,  and  aeriform  substances. 

(o.)  It  causes  solid  bodies  to  descend  towards  the 
centre  of  the  earth,  and  hence  the  use  of  tlie  plumb- 
Hue,  which,  always  taking  that  direction,  is  of  course 
perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  and  serves,  therefore,  in 
building,  to  determine  the  perpendicular,  and  also  the 
level.  It  also  carries  bodies  down  inclined  planes,  and 
down  the  descending  branch  of  the  arc  of  a  pendulum  ; 
in  which  last  case,  it  communicates,  during  the  descent, 
sufficient  force  to  the  body,  to  carry  it  upwards,  to  the 
same  height,  on  the  ascending  branch  of  the  arc.  It 
draws  projectiles  towards  the  earth,  and  of  course  out 
of  the  right  line  which  they  would  otherwise  describe, 
and  thus  puts  a  limit  to  the  range  of  ordnance,  in  war, 
and  to  the  useful  effect  of  fire-engines,  (5cc.  In  the 
clock,  the  weight,  so  called, — that  is,  the  gravity  of 
some  solid  substance  drawing  on  the  machinery, — 
serves  to  overcome  the  resistance  which  is  presented  to 
the  motions  of  the  pendulum,  by  friction  and  the  air, 
and  to  render  the  vibrations  of  this  pendulum  perma- 
nent  and  isochronous ;  that  is,  of  equal  times. 

These  applications  of  gravity,  as  a  moving  force, 
though  suggested,  in  some  cases,  by  artisans,  have  been 
perfected,  in  almost  all  cases,  by  men  of  science.  To 
their  nice  researches  and  calculations  we  owe  whatev- 
er rules  are  now  employed  in  gunnery,  and  in  regulat- 
ing the  motion  of  bodies  falling  througii  space  or  de 
scending  on  inclined  planes.  In  all  these  cases,  the 
result  depends  upon  a  property  of  motion,  which  we 
have  not  yet  mentioned.  This  may  be  called  uniform 
acceleration.  If  a  ball,  lying  on  a  level  surface,  be 
struck,  it  will  move  with  a  velocity  which  would  con- 
tinue, if  there  were  no  friction  or  other  resistance,  al- 
ways the  same.  Now  if,  instead  of  a  single  blow,  it 
were  to  receive  several  Wows,  at  regular  intervals,  the 
velocity  would  go  on  increasing  ;  and  if  each  blow  were 
given  with  the  same  force,  the  increase  would  evident- 
ly be  uniform:  that  is,  if  a  body,  having  received  one 


58  MECHANICAL  AGENTS. 

blow,  passes  through  sixteen  feet,  in  the  first  second,  it 
will  pass  through  double  that  number  of  feet,  in  the 
next  second,  because  it  has  received  another  blow,  while 
it  retains  all  the  motion  communicated  by  the  first.  The 
spaces,  therefore,  described  in  the  successive  seconds, 
would  be  as  follows  :  1....16;  2....32  ;  3....48  ;  4....64; 
&c.  Here,  the  velocity  increases,  each  instant,  by  the 
same  quantity,  that  is,  sixteen  feet ;  and  hence  is  said 
to  be  uniformly  accelerated. 

Now,  gravity,  as  a  force,  may  be  said  to  act  upon 
descending  bodies,  in  the  same  manner,  by  successive 
impulses  ;  only  that  these  impulses,  instead  of  taking 
place  at  intervals,  take  place  in  the  quickest  possible 
succession.  The  effect,  however,  on  the  motion,  will 
be  much  the  same.  It  will  be  accelerated,  and  the  ac- 
celeration will  be  uniform ;  or,  in  other  words,  may  be 
represented  by  a  constant  quantity.  It  is  found,  by 
experiment,  that  if  a  body  fall  freely  through  space,  it 
will  pass  through  16.1  feet  in  the  first  second  of  time. 
But  as,  during  this  second,  gravity  has  been  all  the 
while  acting,  the  velocity  has  increased,  and  has  become 
such,  at  the  end  of  the  first  second,  that,  if  gravity  were 
then  suspended,  and  the  body  left  to  its  acquired  force, 
it  would  fall,  during  the  second  second,  through  32.2 
feet ;  so  that  32.2  represents  the  regular  acceleration, 
from  second  to  second,  or  the  accelerating  force  of 
gravity. 

The  spaces  described,  therefore,  in  the  successive 
seconds,  by  the  influence  of  gravity,  would  be  as  fol- 
lows:  1....16.1  ;  2....48.3:  3....80.5 ;  4.... 112.7  ;  &c.— 
an  arithmetical  series,  of  which  the  first  term  is  16.1, 
and  the  common  difference,  32.2.  Now,  the  sum  of 
any  number  of  terms,  in  such  a  series,  as  we  know  from 
arithmetic,  is  equal  to  the  half  sum  of  the  first  and  last 
terms  multiphed  by  the  number  of  terms ;  and  any  in- 
dividual term  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  common 
difference  into  the  number  of  terms  to  that  place,  mi- 
nus the  first  term.  Hence  we  may  perceive,  that,  hav- 
ing learned,  by  experiment,  the  rate  at  which  falling 


GRAVITY.  59 

bodies  are  accelerated,  we  have  very  simple  rules  for 
ascertaining,  (1)  the  ichole  space,  through  which  a 
body,  falling  freely,  icould  pass,  in  a  given  number 
of  seconds ;  and  (2)  the  space  which  would  be  des- 
cribed, in  any  one  of  those  seconds:  and  these  rules 
are  of  the  utmost  practical  utility. 

Respecting  these  laws,  let  it  be  remarked,  (1)  that 
they  apply  to  all  bodies,  alike  ;  whence  it  follows,  that, 
if  the  resistance  presented  by  the  air  were  removed,  a 
light  body  would  descend  as  rapidly  as  a  heavy  one, — a 
fact  which  is  verified  by  the  guinea  and  feather  experi- 
ment ;*  (r2)  that  they  apply  also  to  bodies  descending 
inclined  planes,  or  through  the  arcs  of  pendulums, 
with  the  single  exception,  that  here,  the  accelerating 
force  being  diminished  by  the  reaction  of  the  plane, 
will  be  less  than  32.2,  and  will  depend  on  the  degree 
of  inclination  which  has  been  given  to  the  plane  or  arc ; 
and  (3)  that  these  laws  were  never  known  till  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  when  they  were  discovered  by  a  dis- 
tinguished philosopher,  Galileo;  previous  to  which, 
mankind  were  unable  to  avail  themselves  of  the  valua- 
ble improvements  to  which  they  have  given  rise. 


Fig.  8. 


*  In  this  experiment,  the  air  is  exhausted  from  a  glass  re 
cciver,  as  perfectly  as  possible  ;  and  a  guinea  or  other  heavy 
substance  is  dropped,  at  the  same  time  with  a  feather,  from 
a  point  where  they  were  previously  placed,  at  the  top  of 
the  receiver,  on  the  inside.  They  reach  the  bottom  at  the 
same  time. 


60  MECHANICAL  AGENTS. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

MECHANICAL  AGENTS. (GRAVITY  CONTINUED.) 

(6.)  Gravity  acts  as  a  moving  force  through  fluids, 
in  the  case  (1)  of  ivatei'-ivheels  ;  (2)  of  fluids  dis- 
charging through  pipes  or  orifices,  flowing  down  riv- 
ers, canals,  &-c. ;  and  (3)  of  the  hydrostatic  press,  bel- 
lows, &c. 

1.  Water  Wheels. — These  are  of  three  kinds,  the 
overshot,  undershot,  and  hreast-ioheel.  In  tlie  over- 
shot-wheel,  the  water  acts  simply  by  weight.  It  is  re- 
ceived at  the  top  of  the  wheel,  which  is  nearly  on  a  level 
with  the  reservoir  or  pond,  by  a  bCcket ;  and,  acting  on 
the  circumference,  serves  to  draw  it  round,  thus  giving 
a  rotary  motion  to  the  wheel.  Similar  buckets  are  at- 
tached to  the  whole  circumference  ;  and,  since  those  on 
one  side  of  it  may  all  contain  water  at  the  same  time, 
they  will  act  together,  to  turn  the  wheel.  It  is  evident, 
from  an  inspection  of  the  wheel,  that  its  useful  effect 
will  be  increased  by  increasing  the  number  of  buckets, 
and  by  retaining  the  water  in  them  as  long  as  possible. 
To  this,  however,  there  are  certain  limits.  Thus,  if  a 
bucket,  passing  round  from  A 
through  B  to  C,  Fig.  4,  were  to 
retain  its  water,  after  passing  C, 
it  would  retard  rather  than  ac- 
celerate. So,  while  at  A  and 
C,  it  could  produce  no  useful 
effect,  but  would  tend,  on  the 
contrary,  by  its  pressure  on  the 
^'^'^^^  a.xle  at  o,  to  increase  the  fric- 

tion, and  thus  to  retard  the  motion,  while  at  other 
points,  very  near  to  A  and  C,  towards  B,  a  similar 
though  less  effect  would  ensue.  Hence,  there  is  a  cer- 
tain  form  of  buckets,  which  is  most  advantageous  ;* 

*  Being  so  constructed,  as  to  retain  the  water  long  enough,  and 
y»t  not  too  long. 


UNDERSHOT-WHEELS. ^BREAST-WHEEL. 


61 


and  this  form  can  be  ascertained  in  no  way  but  by  sci- 
entific research. 

So,  again,  there  is  a  certain  velocity  with  wiiich  an 
overshot-wheel  should  move,  in  order  to  produce  the 
greatest  useful  cfiect.  This  will  be  evident,  from  con- 
sidering two  extreme  cases.  If  the  wheel  be  so  loaded 
as  to  render  the  weight  of  water  insufficient  to  move 
it,  the  velocity  becomes  nothing ;  and  it  is  evident,  that 
the  effect  becomes  nothing.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
wiiecl  be  supposed  to  turn,  as  rapidly  as  the  water 
would  fall  freely,  it  is  evident,  that  the  effect  of  the  v/a- 
ter  in  the  buckets  will  be  nothing,  since  they  will  de- 
scend as  fast  as  the  water  itself  would.  Between  these 
limiting  cases,  there  is  of  course  an  intermediate  veloci- 
ty, which  will  produce  the  best  possible  effect ;  and  to 
ascertain  it  requires,  in  some  degree,  that  union  of  sci- 
ence and  skill,  which  distinguished  a  Smeaton  or  a 
Bossut. 

In  like  manner,  respecting  undershot-wheels,  on 
which  water  acts  by 
impulse  rather  than 
weight,  there  are  del- 
icate questions,  as  to 
where  they  are  to 
bo  used,  and  with 
what  number  of  float- 
boards,  which  call,  in 
many  cases,  for  the 
skill  of  the  mathema- 
tician and  philosopher. 

A  breast-ivheel  is  one  in 
which  the  water  strikes  against 
the  bucket  or  float,  either  in  a 
line  with  the  horizontal  diam- 
eter, or  still  lower.  It  may,  in 
the  first  case,  have  buckets, 
similar  to  those  of  the  overshot 
wheel,  as  in  Fig.  5.  In  the  oth- 
er case,  where  the  water  is  ad- 

6  s.  A. 


Fis.  G. 


62 


MECHANICAL  AGF.XTs.. 


mitted  below  the 
horizontal  diame- 
ter, the  wheel  is 
enclosed  in  a  chan- 
nel which  it  near- 
ly fills,  and  is  fur- 
nished with  floats, 
or  paddles,  like 
those  of  the  com- 
mon under shot-ii'heel.  as  in  Fig.  7. 

2.  Fluids  flov: in g  through  orifices, pipes,  canals,  4'C. 
— AVhen  an  orifice  is  opened  in  a  vessel  or  reservoir 
containing  liquids,  the  liquid  flows  out  with  a  velocity 
equal  to  that  which  a  heavy  body  would  acquire  by 
falUng  through  the  height  from  the  level  of  the  fluid 
in  the  vessel  to  the  orifice.  And  so  its  motion,  al- 
j-;„  3  lowance  being  made  for  friction,  is 

in  every  respect  regulated  by  the  laws 
which  govern  projectiles  drawn  to- 
wards the  earth  by  gravity.  A'ow, 
it  is  often  important  for  us  to  calcu- 
late how  much  fluid  will  be  dis- 
charged through  a  given  orifice  in  a 
is,  with  what  velocity  it  will  be  dis- 
or  how  long  it  will  take  to  empty  a  vessel  of 
given  dimensions,  through  an  orifice  of  given  size ;  or 
how  large  an  orifice  must  be  made,  in  order  to  obtain 
a  requisite  supply  of  fluid,  in  a  given  time.  Thus, 
when  an  engineer  undertakes  to  supply  a  city  with 
water,  he  ascertains  how  much  will  be  required  for 
daily  or  weekly  consumption  ;  then  determines  the  ele- 
vation of  his  reservoir  above  the  town ;  and  from  these, 
as  data,  must  calculate  how  much  diameter  of  pipe  will 
be  necessary  to  aftbrd  the  supply.  Here,  of  course, 
allowance  is  to  be  made  for  friction  against  the  pipe ; 
for  leakage,  &c. ;  and  it  will  be  evident  to  every  one, 
that,  to  make  such  calculations  with  accuracy  requires 
all  the  skill  of  the  scientific  and  practical  engineer. 


given  tune 
charsred 


that 


HrDROSTATIC   PRESSURE. 


63 


Fis.  0. 


3.  Hydrostatic  pressure. — (a.)  Fluids  have  one 
property  wliicli  distinguishes  tliem  remarkably  from 
solids,  and  by  which  they  modify,  essentially,  the  action 
of  gravity.  This  is,  that  their  particles,  being  held  to- 
gether by  a  very  slight  cohesion,  are  ready  to  move 
at.  the  slightest  force  ;  and  experiment  proves,  that  they 
can  be  at  rest  only  ichen  they  press  and  are  pressed, 
equally,  in  all  directions.  Hence,  if  water  be  confined 
in  a  vessel,  and  pressure,  to  any  amount,  be  applied  to 
a  square  inch  of  that  water,  a  pressure,  to  an  equal 
amount,  will  be  transmitted  to  every  square  inch  of  the 
surface  of  the  vessel  in  which  the  water  is  contained. 
For  example :  fill  a  cask  with  water,  and  then  insert  a 
«;mall  tube  in  the  top;  fill  this  tube  with  wa- 
ter, and  it  is  evident  that  it  will  press  upon 
A  B,  where  tiie  tube  is  inserted,  witji  a 
force  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  water  in 
the  tube.  Suppose  this  to  be  one  pound  ; 
then  the  pressure  on  the  inside  of  the  ves- 
sel will  exceed  one  pound  as  many  times  as 
that  inside  surface  exceeds  the  area  A  B,  which  may  be 
many  thousand  times.  Hence,  we  may.  by  this  simple 
process,  burst  the  strongest  cask,  and  have  a  pleasing  and 
striking  proof  of  the  jjrinciple  under  consideration. 

It  is  on  this  principle  that  we  construct  the  hydrO' 
static  bellows.      A  vertical  tube  is  pis-  lo. 

made  to  communicate  with  an  ap- 
paratus like  a  common  bellows,  ex- 
cept that  it  has  no  valve,  or  opening, 
at  the  under  side.  If  the  tube  holds 
an  ounce  of  water,  and  has  an  area  or 
caliber  equal  to  the  one  thousandth 
part  of  that  of  the  top  board  of  the 
bellows,  an  ounce  of  water  in  the 
tube  will  balance  a  thousand  ounces 
resting  on  the  bellows.  The  upper 
surface,  or  top  board,  being  free  to 
rise,  may  be  used  for  raising  weights, 


64 


MECilAXICAL  AGEXTS. 


applying  pressure,  tfcc.     On  the  same  principle,  Mr 
Fig.  11.  Bramah      constructed 

his  hydrostatic  press, 
an  instrument  of  such 
prodigious  force,  that, 
by  means  of  one  no 
larger  than  a  com- 
mon teapot,  we  cut 
asunder  a  bar  of 
iron,  as  easily  as  we 
cut  a  shp  of  paste- 
board.* 

(5.)  It  follows,  from  the  property  of  fluids  which  we 
have  just  mentioned,  that  their  pressure  against  any 
surface  is  proportioned,  7iot  to  the  bulk  or  quantity  of 
the  fluid,  but  only  to  the  size  of  that  surface,  and  to  the 
height  of  the  fluid  above  it.  Thus,  in  the  cask  with  a 
tube  inserted  in  it.  or  in  a  conical  vessel  which  stands  on 
the  base,  the  pressure  is  just  as  great  as  though  the  cask 
or  vessel  had  been  throughout  of  the  size  of  the  larg- 
est part.  And,  on  the  other  hand,  if  it  were  funnel- 
shaped,  the  pressure  against  the  lower  extremity  would 
be  no  greater  than  though  the  vessel  were  throughout 
of  the  same  diameter  as  at  the  bottom.  If  the  surface 
against  which  the  fluid  presses  be  perpendicular,  or  in- 
chned,  as  in  a  dam,  then,  in  order  to  find  the  amount 
of  pressure,  we  multiply  the  number  of  square  feet  in 
that  dam. — not  into  the  whole  height  of  the  fluid,  but 
into  the  distance  from  its  surface  to  the  centre  of  grav- 
ity of  the  dam.  The  increase  of  pressure,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  depth,  shows  the  necessity  of  making  banks 
of  canals,  and  the  sides  of  tubes,  in  which  water  is  to  be 
conveyed,  stronger  in  propoi'tion  to  the  depth.  It  is 
needless  to  make  them  of  the  same  thickness  through- 
out :  since,  if  thev  are  stronar  enousrh  for  the  e:reater 


*  The  piston  A  moves  in  the  iron  cylinder  C,  being  made  air-tight 
by  the  packing  at  B.  "When  water  is  driven  by  the  forcing  pump 
G,  through  the  small  tube  F  E,  into  the  cylinder,  the  piston  is  rais- 
ed, slowly,  but  with  great  power. 


LEVEL  OF  FLUIDS.  65 

pressure  below,  they  will  be  stronger  than  is  necessary 
for  that  above. 

From  the  principles  now  stated,  we  may  learn  the 
reason  why  dams,  and  the  banks  of  canals  or  rivers, 
sometimes  blow  up,  as  it  is  termed.  If  water  can  in- 
sinuate itself  under  a  bank  or  dam,  even  although  the 
la}  er  were  no  thicker  than  a  dollar,  the  pressure  of  the 
water,  in  the  canal  or  dam,  will  force  it  up.  Similar 
effects  sometimes  follow  from  the  water  which  settles 
beneath  the  foundation  of  buildings,  if  it  be  connected, 
in  any  way,  with  other  Avatcr  having  considerable  per- 
pendicular height.  It  has  even  been  supposed,  that 
partial  earthquakes  may  have  been  produced,  and  large 
fragments  of  mountains  detached  from  their  bases,  by 
the  same  cause. 

(c.)  The  level  of  fluids. — Another  consequence  of 
this  equality  of  pressure  in  fluids,  combined  with  their 
gravity,  is,  that,  when  a  fluid  is  at  rest,  its  surface  is 
level.  This  is  equally  true,  whether  the  liquid  is  con- 
tained in  an  ordinary  vessel,  or  in  a  tube  bent  like  a  U, 
or  in  a  teapot  or  teakettle.  The  fluid  will  stand  at  the 
same  height,  in  all  parts  of  the  vessel,  in  one  branch  as 
in  the  other ;  in  the  spout  or  nose,  as  in  the  vessel  itself. 
It  follows  from  this,  that,  though  water,  when  tmconfincd, 
as  in  open  canals,  can  never  rise  above  its  level,  at  any 
one  point,  and  can  never  move  upwards ;  yet,  on  being 
confined  in  close  channels,  it  will  rise  as  high  as  its 
source,  or  as  the  point  whence  it  came.  Upon  this 
principle  depends  the  construction  of  fountains  for 
spouting  fluids  ;  also,  those  useful  contrivances  for  con- 
veying water,  by  pipes,  in  a  far  more  easy,  cheap,  and 
effectual,  way,  than  by  the  vast  structures,  called  aque- 
ducts, which  the  ancients  employed  to  carry  their  sup- 
plies of  water,  in  artificial  rivers  over  arches,  for  many 
miles.  In  such  case,  the  stream  must  have  been  run- 
ning down,  all  the  way  ;  and  consequently,  a  fountain, 
fed  from  it,  could  not,  at  its  termination,  furnish  the 
water  at  the  same  height  as  at  its  source.  Upon  the 
same  principle,  also,  namely,  that  a  fluid  at  rest  is  al- 


66  MECHANICAL   AGENTS. 

ways  level,  depends  the  construction  of  levelling  in- 
struments, for  ascertaining  whether  any  given  surface 
Fig.  ]o.  is  level,  or  a  given  line,  horizontal ; 

cj — ^-=-^ — b    ^or   finding  what  points  are   on   the 
same    level    with    any    other    given 
point,  or  how  much  they  are  below  or  above  it.     Fig. 
1-2  is  a  water  level. 

(d.)  Specijic  Gravittj. — If  a  solid  be  freely  suspend- 
ed in  a  liquid,  it  v.ill  weigh  less  than  when  in  air.  Now. 
the  upward  pressure  of  the  liquid  against  the  bottom 
of  this  solid,  or,  in  other  words,  the  loss  of  weight  in 
the  solid,  must  be  just  equal  to  the  pressure  which 
would  have  been  exerted  against  a  portion  of  liquid 
occupving  the  same  place  ;  or,  in  other  words,  must  be 
just  equal  to  the  weight  of  a  bulk  of  the  liquid  as  large 
as  the  sohd.  If  equal  bulks  of  the  solid  and  fluid 
would  weigh  the  same,  then  the  solid  will  remain  freely 
suspended  in  the  fluid,  at  any  point,  without  support. 
If  the  solid  weigh  less  than  an  equal  bulk  of  the  fluid, 
it  will  rise,  till  the  part  immersed  is  of  the  same  bulk 
as  a  portion  of  fluid,  which,  if  weighed,  would  just 
equal  the  ichole  weight  of  the  solid.  If  it  weigh  more, 
it  will  sink,  by  a  force  equal  to  the  diflerence  in  weight 
of  equal  bulks  of  the  solid  and  liquid ;  and  generally,  a 
body  of  given  bulk,  by  being  immersed,  loses  as  ranch 
in  its  weight  as  an  equal  bulk  of  the  fluid  iveighs.  If, 
then,  we  would  find  the  relative  weights,  or,  what  is 
the  same  thing,  the  specific  gravities*  of  solids,  we 

*  For  the  sake  of  convenience,  one  substance  (water)  is  assumed 
as  the  standard,  and  its  gravity  being  expressed  bv  1,  the  relative 
gravity  of  an  equal  bulk  of  any  other  substance  will  be  expressed  by 
a  whole  number  or  fraction,  which  stands  for  its  spccijlc  gravity. 
Thus  numerical  tables  of  specific  gravities  are  constructed. 

It  might  seem,  at  first  sight,  that  the  relative  or  specific  gravity  of 
two  solids  would  be  ascertained  more  readily,  by  simply  weighing 
them  in  air.  This  would  be  so,  if  we  could  obtain  two  bodies  of 
precisely  the  same  bulk  ;  since  it  is  the  relative  weights  or  densities 
only  of  bodies  of  equal  bulk,  that  we  seek.  But  the  exact  bulk  of 
bodies,  of  irregular  figure,  cannot  be  ascertained.  Thus,  Hiero 
would  know  whether  all  the  gold  which  he  gave  the  jeweller  hag 
been  worked  np  in  the  crown,  or  whether  an  inferior  metal  has  been 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY.  67 

immerse  them,  successively,  in  water,  or  any  other 
liquid,  and  see  how  much  of  tlieir  weight,  in  each  case, 
is  lost.  If,  on  the  contrary,  we  would  find  the  relative 
weights  of  two  or  more  fluids,  we  take  the  same  solid, 
and  immerse  it,  successively,  in  each  of  those  fluids, 
and  tlie  weight  lost,  in  these  several  cases,  will  show 
the  relative  or  specific  gravities  of  the  fluids,  which  will 
be  in  the  direct  ratio  of  their  densities. 

We  owe  the  invention  of  the  method  of  ascertaining 
specific  giavities  to  Archimedes.  He  had  been  requir- 
ed, by  Hiero,  King  of  Syracuse,  to  determine  whether 
a  gold  crown,  which  had  been  made  for  him,  was  adul- 
terated or  not.  While  studying  this  problem,  he  hap- 
pened to  bathe,  and  observed  that  the  water  in  the 
bath  rose,  as  his  body  was  immersed.  He  then  infer- 
red, that  the  rise  would  be  always  proportioned  to  the 
bulk  of  the  body  immersed,  and  that,  if  two  bodies,  of 
equal  weight  but  unequal  bulk,  were  plunged  in  the 
fluid,  the  rise,  being  directly  as  the  bulk,  would  be  in- 
versely as  the  density  or  specific  gravity.  This  sug- 
gested to  him  a  ready  mode  of  testing  the  purity  of  the 
gold  crown  ;  and  generally,  we  may  remark^  that  the 
purity  of  any  substance,  such  as  drugs,  chemical  prep- 
arations, coins,  liquids,  &-c.,  may  be  readily  ascertain- 
ed by  the  method  of  specific  gravity.  Different  instru- 
ments have  been  constructed,  for  detecting  adidtera- 
tions  in  various  substances,  such  as  the  oleometer,  for 
oil,  the  lactometer,  for  milk,  &c. 

mixed  with  it.  He  cannot  tell  by  weighing  the  crown  against  the 
gold,  ill  air,  since  they  may  have  equal  weights,  and  yet  not  be  of 
tiie  same  degree  of  purity.  But  if,  on  being  weighed  in  water,  each 
loses  the  same  proportion  of  its  weight,  this  is  evidence  that  they  are 
of  equal  bnlli,  and  therefore  of  equal  density,  or  .specific  gravity. 


68  MECHANICAL  AGENTS. 

CHAPTER  V. 

MECHAXICAL  AGENTS. (GRAVITY  CONTINUED.) 

(c.)  The  gravity  of  aerifoioi  bodies,  such  as  the 
atmosphen'e,  gases,  &c.,  acts  (in  connexion  with  their 
inertia  and  elasticity)  as  a  moving  force,  in  the  case  of 
pumps,  barometers,  windmills,  sailing-vessels,  fire-en- 
gines, dec.  That  air  has  gravity  or  weight,  may  be  prov- 
ed by  vreigliing  a  flask,  from  which  the  air  has  been  with- 
drawn. It  will  be  found,  when  filled  with  air,  some 
grains  heavier  than  when  emptied.  Now,  it  is  found, 
by  experiment,  that  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on 
a  square  inch  is  equal  to  about  fifteen  pounds ;  that  is, 
that  a  column  of  this  fluid,  whose  base  is  one  inch 
square  and  whose  height  is  that  of  the  atmosphere, 
weighs  fifteen  pounds.  Consequently,  it  follows,  that 
a  horizontal  surface  sustains  a  weight  or  pressure 
amounting  to  fifteen  times  as  many  pounds  as  there 
are  square  inches  in  its  extent.  If.  then,  we  have  a 
solid  substance,  with  an  horizontal  surface  ;  for  exam- 
ple, a  piston,  placed  in  a  vertical  cylinder,  and  there  is 
no  resistance  beloiv  it,  it  will  be  forced  dov^^n,  by  a  me- 
chanical pressure  of  fifteen  times  as  many  pounds  as 
there  are  square  inches  in  its  end ;  and  in  this  way  a 
mechanical  agent,  of  power  limited  only  by  the  magni- 
tude of  the  piston,  will  be  obtained.  Before  this  force 
can  be  exerted,  however,  a  vacuum  must  be  formed ; 
that  is,  the  air  must  be  withdrawn  from  one  side  of  the 
piston  :  and,  if  this  be  done  by  mechanical  means,  as  is 
the  case  in  the  pump,  it  is  obvious,  that  it  must  require 
just  as  much  force  to  do  it,  as  will  be  subsequently 
gained  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  other 
side. 

Again :  the  air  may  exert  its  moving  force,  by  being 
applied  to  water.  This  is  the  case  in  the  common 
pump.  To  understand  the  principle  of  this  instru- 
ment, let  us  suppose  a  bent  tube.  Fig.   1.3,  contain- 


-BAROMKTEK. 


69 


ing  water  in  the  portion  A  B  C,  and  open  at  both  ends. 
The  water  will  stand  at  the  same  height,  in  both 
branches.  If,  now,  the  air  were  withdrawn  pig.  j3. 
from  tiie  branch  C  D,  the  pressure  of  the  air  on 
the  water  at  A,  in  the  other  branch,  would  force 
it  downwards  towards  B,  and  thus  cause  a  rise 
ol  tiie  water,  in  the  other  branch,  B  D.  It 
would  continue  to  rise,  until  the  weight  of  wa- 
ter, in  the  branch  B  D,  was  sufficient  to  bal- 
ance the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  added  to 
the  weight  of  the  water  A  B ;  and  before  that 
equilibrium  can  take  place,  miglit  discharge  it- 
self at  D.  Here,  the  branch  B  D  may  represent  the 
barrel  of  the  pump,  A  B  the  water  in  the  well. 

Some  notion  of  the  common  or  suction 
pump  may  be  gathered  from  the  annexed 
diagram,  (Fig.  14.)  in  which  C  L  is  the  bar- 
rel of  the  pump,  B  a  box  fixed  in  the  inside 
of  the  cylinder,  just  above  the  surface  of  the 
water  in  the  well,  and  D  another  box,  or 
piston,  attached  to  the  rod  c  d,  and  moved 
by  a  power  applied  at  a.  Both  B  and  D 
are  so  formed,  as  to  prevent  the  passing 
of  any  air  between  them  and  the  sides, 
and  have  valves,  b  and  d,  opening  up- 
wards, similar  to  the  valves  in  a  common 
bellows.  If,  now,  the  piston  D  be  drawn 
upwards,  it  will  evidently  carry  the  air  be- 
fore it,  and  leave  a  vacuum  between  itself 
and  B.  But  as  the  air  presses  on  the  wa- 
ter in  the  well,  outside  of  the  barrel,  it  will  force  it  up, 
to  supply  this  vacuum ;  and,  after  having  passed  above 
B,  the  valve  b  will  be  shut,  by  its  downward  pressure. 
At  the  returning  stroke  of  D,  the  water  will  pass  through 
the  valve  in  D  ;  and,  on  raising  D  again,  will  be  driven 
out  of  the  spout  at  e.  Here  we  see,  at  once,  that  the 
moving  power  is  applied  at  a,  and  that  the  pressure  of 
the  air  is  used  merely  as  an  intermediate  agent,  to  effect, 
with  greater  expedition  and  convenience,  what  might 


70  MECHANICAL  AGENTS. 

have  been  eftected  directly,  as  in  a  common  well,  by 
the  same  power. 

In  the  bcn'omete?',  the  mercury  in  the  tube  is  sustained 
by  the  pressure  of  the  air.  If  a  vacuum  be  created 
in  a  glass  tube,  of  sufficient  length  and  closed  at  one 
end,  and  if  the  open  end  be  inserted  in  a  basin  of  mer- 
cury, the  fluid  will  rise  to  the  height  of  twenty-nine 
or  thirty  inches,  because  a  column  of  mercury  of  this 
height  weighs  just  as  much  as  a  column  of  the  atmos- 
Fig.  15.  phere  of  the  same  base.  This  instrument, 
(Fig.  15,)  is  very  useful,  in  showing  those 
changes  in  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
which  usually  precede  storms. 

If  the  column  of  the  atmosphere  which 
sustains  the  mercury  becomes  lighter,  the 
mercury  will  of  course  fall,  and  vice  versa. 
The  instrument  has  also  another  important 
use.  If  we  are  ascending  mountains,  the 
column  of  atmosphere  above  us  must  be  con- 
^^  stantly  growing  shorter,  and  of  course  light- 

^^^  er ;  and  hence,  if  we  carry  a  barometer,  the 

fall  of  the  mercury  will  indicate  the  various  heights  to 
which  we  attain.  It  may  be  proper  to  add,  that  the 
weight  of  the  atmosphere  was  not  discovered  till  the 
sixteenth  century ;  and  that  to  this  discovery  we  owe 
the  barometer,  as  well  as  many  improvements  in  the 
construction  of  pumps.  Previous  to  the  time  of  Galileo, 
philosophers  explained  the  ascent  of  fluids  in  a  vacuum, 
by  saying  that  Nature  abhorred  a  vacuum  :  and  when 
it  was  subsequently  found  that  water  would  never  as- 
cend above  thirty-two  feet,  (the  point  at  which  its 
weight,  together  with  the  elasticity  of  the  residual  air, 
just  balanced  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,)  they  ex- 
plained it,  by  saying,  that  Nature's  horror  of  a  vacuum 
did  not  extend  beyond  that  distance  !* 

In  windmills,  where  the  machinery  is  turned  by  the 

*  See  further,  on  this  subject,  Vol.  i,  p.  19,  &c.,  of  a  work  en 
titled,  '  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,'  forming  the  four 
teenth  volume  of  'The  ScHOor,  Library.' 


ELASTICITY.  71 

wind  striking  (as  in  undershot  water-wheels)  against  tiie 
vanes  of  a  wheel,  and  so,  also,  in  vessels  jn'opelled  by 
wind  striking  against  the  sails,  air  acts  not  so  much  by 
gravity  as  by  inertia.  To  adjust  these  vanes,  so  that 
the  wind  will  strike  upon  them  with  the  greatest  eftect, 
and  will  act  only  while  it  contributes  to  impel  the  ma- 
chinery, is  a  problem  which  has  exercised  the  most  ac- 
curate experimentalists  and  the  most  profound  mathe- 
maticians. It  is  a  beautiful  j)roof  of  the  truly  mathe- 
matical principles  on  which  the  works  of  creation  arc 
formed,  that  the  method  of  arranging  the  sails,  ultimate- 
ly adopted  in  the  windmill,  bears  a  striking  resemblance 
to  the  arrangement  of  the  feathers  and  wings  of  birds. 
These  feathers  are  so  adjusted,  tliat,  when  the  wing 
descends  and  strikes  against  the  air,  it  will  present  the 
greatest  possible  surface  ;  whereas,  when  it  is  raised,  to 
renew  the  stroke,  it  presents  the  least  possible  surface 
So  in  the  windmill,  the  position  of  the  sail  varies,  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  wheel,  that,  in  the  one  case  it  may 
receive  the  full  force  of  the  wind,  and  in  the  other  case 
may  suffer  it  to  pass  by. 

II.  Elasticity. — In  fire-engines,  airguns,  ahyumps, 
&c.,  a  new  property  of  air  is  brought  into  view,  which 
we  call  elasticity.  It  acts,  in  the  common  fire-engine,  in 
conjunction  with  the  gravity  of  the  air,  and  in  the  air- 
gun,  in  conjunction  with  that  equality  of  pressure,  which 
is  a  property  of  aeriform  bodies  as  well  as  of  liquids.  In 
virtue  of  its  elasticity,  the  air  tends  to  expand  itself;  and 

it  be  condensed,  or  compressed  into  a  space  smaller 
han  that  which  it  naturally  occupies,  it  will,  if  suffered  to 
expand  freely,  exert  a  force  just  equal  to  that  which  has 
been  employed  in  compressing  it.  Thus,  in  the  fii'c- 
engine,  water  is  forced  into  an  airtight  vessel,  which  had 
been  previously  filled  with  air :  as  the  water  enters,  it 
crowds  the  air  into  a  smaller  and  smaller  space,  by  which 
means,  the  elasticity  of  the  latter  is  so  much  increased, 
that  it  reacts  upon  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  drives 
it  out  through  the  spout  of  the  engine.  Here,  the  water 
is  thrown  out  by  the  air,  with  no  greater  force  than  has 


72  MECHANICAL,  AGENT5. 

been  previously  applied  to  work  the  pistons ;  so  that 
there  is  really  no  gain  of  power.  The  advantage  is, 
that,  by  interposing  the  air,  we  get  an  agent  which  acts 
by  continuous  pressure,  and  not  by  intermitting  strokes. 
So  in  the  airgun :  by  condensing  air  within  the  breech 
of  the  gun,  we  procure  a  force,  which,  on  being  releas- 
ed, will  act  instantaneously,  and  with  a  power  equal  to 
all  the  separate  effects  made  in  the  process  of  condens- 
ing it.  If  we  attempted,  by  mere  manual  force,  to  pro- 
ject a  bullet,  we  should  produce  but  little  effect.  Con- 
densed air  serves  as  a  magazine,  in  which  we  can 
treasure  up  and  combine  a  great  nmnber  of  these  sepa- 
rate exertions  of  our  strength,  and  cause  them  to  act 
simultaneously. 

It  may  give  us  some  impression  of  the  value  of  sci- 
ence, as  connected  with  the  arts,  if  we  consider,  that 
scarcely  one  of  the  important  powers  which  we  have 
just  considered  was  employed  by  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, in  the  days  of  their  greatest  civilization  and  re- 
nown. They  had  neither  icaterwheels.*  windmills, 
nor  airpumps.  To  procure  bread  for  his  family,  a 
Greek  had  no  flour-mills,  except  such  as  were  moved 
by  hand  or  by  animals.  Neither  had  he  sawmills,  to  sup- 
ply boards  and  lumber  for  edifices  ;  nor  fire-engines,  to 
rescue  cities  and  habitations  from  the  devouring  ele- 
ment ;  nor  hydrostatic  presses,  to  concentrate,  within  a 
small  compass,  mimense  pressure  :  nor  metallic  pipes, 
to  convey  water  over  hills  and  valleys,  without  the  ex- 
pense of  arches  and  mason  work  ;  nor,  in  fine,  the  air- 
pump,  to  withdraw  substances  from  the  contact  of  the 
atmosphere,  so  as  to  observe  the  effect  on  combustion, 
sounds,  respiration,  and  vegetable  life. 

But,  while  we  acknowledge  the  vast  benefits  which 

*  Tliis  remark  requires  some  qualification.  Beckmann  saj3  : 
"  The  first  certain  information  we  have  of  the  invention  of  icatermills 
is  not  older  than  the  time  of  Julius  Csesar.  Cattlemills  continued  in 
such  general  use,  that,  near  three  centuries  afterwards,  there  were 
more  than  three  hundred  at  Rome  ;  and,  A.  D.  398,  some  public  enact- 
ments were  made,  which  show  that,  even  then,  waiermills  were 
considered  a.  neve  establishment." 


ELASTICITY.  73 

liave  been  conferred  by  these  inventions,  in  modern 
times,  we  must  remember,  that  even  yet  the  principles 
on  which  they  depend  are  by  no  means  generally  under- 
stood. Multitudes,  even  of  those  who  are  called  to 
deal  continually  with  those  principles,  have  no  proper 
conception  of  them,  and  commit  many  blunders  and 
waste  a  great  deal  of  money,  which  a  little  knowledge 
would  have  enabled  tiiem  to  save.  The  two  following 
instances  will  be  sufficient  illustration  of  this  fact :  "  A 
respectable  gentleman,  of  landed  property,  in  one  of 
the  middle  counties  of  Scotland,  applied  to  a  friend,  a 
lecturer  on  chemistry  and  natural  pliilosopiiy,  in  order 
to  obtain  his  advice  respecting  a  pump-well,  which  he 
had  lately  constructed  at  considerable  expense.  He 
told  him,  that,  notwithstanding  every  exertion,  he  could 
not  obtain  a  drop  of  water  from  the  spout,  although  he 
was  quite  sure  there  was  plenty  of  water  in  the  well, 
and  although  he  had  plastered  it  all  around,  and  block- 
ed up  every  crevice.  Wlien  his  friend  inspected  the 
pump,  he  suspected  that  the  upper  part  of  the  well 
^vas  airtight,  and,  consequently,  that  the  atmospheric 
pressure  could  not  act  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in 
the  well.  He  immediately  ordered  a  hole  to  be  bored, 
adjacent  to  the  pump,  when  the  air  rushed  in,  with 
considerable  force  ;  and,  on  pumping,  tlie  water  llowed 
copiously  from  the  spout.  The  gentleman  was  both 
overjoyed  and  astonished  ;  but  it  is  somewhat  astonish- 
ing, that  neither  he,  nor  his  neighbors,  nor  any  of  the 
workmen  who  had  been  employed  in  its  construction, 
should  have  been  able  to  point  out  the  cause  of  the 
defect ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  should  have  taken  the 
eerif  opposite  means  for  remedying  it,  namely,  by  plas- 
tering up  every  crevice,  so  as  to  produce  a  kind  of  va- 
cuum within  the  well."* 

*  Diclc,  on  the  Improvement  of  Society.  We  once  knew  a  man  to 
carry  a  series  of  aqueduct  pipes  to  the  bottom  of  a  well  sixty  feet 
deep,  and  thence  over  the  top  down  into  a  neighboring  valley,  be- 
low the  level  of  the  bottom  of  the  well,  for  the  purpose  of  supply- 
ing water  to  a  small  manufactory,  as  a  syphon.  If  he  had  known 
that  water  rises  in  the  syphon,  as  in  the  pump,  in  consequence  of 
7  S.  A. 


74  MECHANICAL   AGE.VTS. 

After  the  diving-bell  was  invented,  it  was  consider- 
ed desirable  to  devise  some  means  of  remaining,  for 
any  length  of  time,  under  water,  and  rising  at  pleasure, 
without  assistance.  '•  Some  years  ago,  an  ingenious 
individual  proposed  a  project,  by  which  this  end  was  to 
be  accomplished.  It  consisted  in  sinking  the  hull  of  a 
ship,  made  quite  watertight,  with  the  decks  and  sides 
stronalv  supported  by  shores,  with  the  only  entry  secur- 
ed bv  a  stout  trapdoor,  in  such  a  manner,  that,  by  dis- 
engaging from  within,  the  weights  employed  to  sink  it, 
it  might  rise  of  itself  to  the  surface.  To  render  the 
trial  more  satisfactory  and  the  result  more  striking,  the 
projector  himself  made  the  first  essay.  It  was  agreed, 
that  he  should  sink  in  twenty  fathoms  water,  and  rise 
again,  without  assistance,  at  the  expiration  of  twenty- 
four  hours.  Accordingly,  making  all  secure,  fastening 
down  his  trapdoor,  and  provided  with  all  necessaries, 
as  well  as  with  the  means  of  making  signals,  to  indicate 
his  situation,  this  unhappy  victim  of  his  own  ingenuity 
entered,  and  was  sunk.  No  signal  was  made,  and  the 
time  appointed  elapsed.  An  immense  concourse  of 
people  had  assembled  to  witness  his  rising,  but  in  vain ; 
for  the  vessel  was  never  seen  more.  The  presswe  of 
the  water  at  so  great  a  depth  had  no  doubt  been  com- 
pletely under-estimated  ;  and  the  sides  of  the  vessel  be- 
ing at  once  crushed  in,  the  unfortunate  projector  per- 
ished, before  he  could  even  make  tlie  signal  concerted, 
to  indicate  his  distress."* 

the  pressare  of  the  atmosphere,  and  that  this  pressure  will  force  h 
np  only  a  little  more  than  thirty  feet,  he  might  have  been  spared  the 
cost  of  the  attempt  and  the  mortification  of  its  failure. 
*  Sir  J.  Herschel,  on  the  Study  of  Natural  Philosophy. 


HEAT.  75 

CHAPTEPv,  VI. 

MECHANICAL  AGENTS. (INANIMATE  FORCES  CONTINUED.; 

III.  Heat. — Hating  thus  explained  how  gravity  and 
elasticity  are  employed,  as  moving  forces  in  the  arts,  we 
come,  in  the  third  place,  to  consider  Heat. 

Its  use  as  a  mechanical  agent  depends  upon  the 
power  which  it  has  of  expanding  bodies.  If  a  bar  of 
metal  be  accurately  measured,  and  then  raised  to  a  red 
heat,  it  will  be  found  longer  than  before ;  and  still 
longer,  if  it  be  raised  to  a  ichite  heat.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  the  mechanic  heats  the  iron  tire  of  a  wag- 
on or  coach  wheel,  and  the  iron  hoops  of  a  cask,  before 
putting  them  on  ;  and  also  the  rivets  which  are  used  in 
binding  together  the  iron  plates  of  which  boilers  are 
made.  Being,  by  this  means,  expanded,  they  are  easily 
fitted  to  their  places,  while  the  contraction  which  fol- 
lows binds  the  adjacent  parts  together,  and  holds  them 
firmly. 

A  striking  instance  of  the  use,  as  a  mechanical  agent, 
to  which  this  expansive  power  of  metals  may  be  appli- 
ed, occurred  some  years  since,  in  Paris.  The  weight 
of  the  roof  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Martin  was  forcing 
the  walls  asunder,  and  the  following  method  was  taken 
to  restore  them  to  their  perpendicular  position.  Holes 
were  made,  at  opposite  points,  in  several  parts  of  the 
wall,  through  which  strong  iron  bars  were  introduced, 
so  as  to  extend  across  the  building,  their  ends  project- 
ing outside  the  walls.  Large  nuts,  were  placed  upon 
their  ends,  and  screwed  up,  so  as  to  press  upon  the 
walls.  Every  alternate  bar  was  then  heated,  by  pow- 
erful lamps,  so  that  its  length  was  increased  by  expan- 
sion, and  the  nuts,  before  in  close  contact  with  the  walls, 
retired  to  some  distance  from  them  :  the  nuts  were  then 
screwed  up  to  the  walls,  and  the  bars  cooled.     The  pro- 


76  MECHANICAL  AGEMS. 

cess  of  cooling  restored  the  length  of  the  bars  to  wliat 
it  had  been  before  the  heat  was  applied,  and  the  nuts 
were  drawn  together  by  an  immense  force.  The  same 
process  being  repeated  with  the  intermediate  bars,  and 
this  being  continued,  the  walls  of  the  building  were 
gradually  restored  to  their  perpendicular  position. 

The  expansion  of  bodies  by  heat  atibrds  us  the 
means  of  constructing  instruments  to  measure  dift'er- 
ent  degi-ees  of  temperature.  The  principal  of  these 
are,  the  common  thermometer,  and  the  pyrometer  of 
Wedgewood.  The  thermometer  consists  of  a  small 
tube,  terminating  at  the  bottom  in  a  bulb,  contain- 
ing mercury  or  spirits  of  wine.  The  air  having  been 
previously  expelled  by  heat,  the  tube  is  closed  At  the 
top,  to  prevent  its  return,  and  a  vacuum  being  thus 
produced,  above  the  fluid,  it  is  free  to  expand  when 
heat  is  applied.  This  expansion  is  indicated  by  a  rise 
of  the  fluid ;  whereas  the  contraction  produced  by 
cold  causes  the  fluid  to  descend.  A  scale,  attached 
to  the  tube,  and  divided  into  degrees,  measures  these 
variations,  and  thus  indicates  the  temperature.  In  di- 
viding this  scale,  it  is  usual,  in  the  first  place,  to  fix  the 
two  points,  at  which  the  mercury  stands,  when  the  tem- 
perature is  sufficiently  low  to  freeze  water,  and  sufficient- 
ly high  to  boil  it.  These  are  obtained,  by  immersing 
the  instrument  with  the  scale,  first  into  melting  ice,  and 
afterwards  into  boiling  water.  The  intermediate  space 
is  then  divided  into  a  certain  number  of  degrees,  the 
number  being  different  in  diflerent  kinds  of  thermome- 
ters. If  the  bore  of  the  tube  be  throughout  of  the 
same  size,  these  spaces  or  degrees  will  be  equal  in 
length  ;  otherwise,  they  will  be  unequal.  It  is  evident, 
that  that  portion  of  the  tube  to  which  they  correspond 
must  always  be  of  the  same  capacity. 

The  pyrometer  is  an  instrument  used  for  measuring 
higher  degress  of  temperature  than  are  indicated  by 
ordinary  thermometers.  It  depends  upon  a  property 
of  pure  clay,  which  forms  an  exception  to  the  general 


STEAM.  77 

expansion  of  bodies  by  heat.*  This  clay,  when  much 
heated,  contracts.  The  contraction  is  first  observed 
when  the  clay  acquires  a  red  heat,  and  continues  to  in- 
crease, until  it  vitrifies ;  the  reduction  of  bulk  being 
permanent,  and  amounting,  in  the  whole,  to  about  one 
fourth.  In  order  to  take  advantage  of  this  property  of 
clay,  Mr.  Wedgewood  constructed  a  gauge  of  brass, 
consisting  of  two  straight  pieces,  two  feet  long,  fixed 
upon  a  plate  a  little  nearer  to  each  other  at  one  end 
than  at  the  other,  the  space  between  them,  at  the  wid- 
est end,  being  five  tenths  of  an  inch,  and  at  the  narrow- 
est, three  tenths.  The  converging  pieces  were  divided 
into  inches  and  tenths  of  inches.  The  pieces  of  clay, 
the  contractions  of  which  were  to  be  measured,  were 
of  a  cylindrical  form,  flattened  on  one  side,  and  of 
such  a  size  as  to  be  exactly  adapted  to  the  wider  end 
of  the  gauge,  so  that  it  might  slide  further  in,  in  pro- 
portion to  tiie  degree  of  heat  applied  to  it.  A  scale 
was  adapted  to  this  clay,  each  degree  of  which  is  equal 
to  one  hundred  and  thirty  degrees  of  the  ordinary  scale 
in  thermometers.  The  temperature  of  red  heat,  which 
corresponds  to  one  tliousand  seventy-seven  and  a  half 
degrees  of  Fahrenheit's  scale,  was  assumed  as  the  com- 
mencement of  Wedgewood's ;  and  it  was  found,  that 
tlie  instrument  could  be  used  to  measure  temperatures 
as  high  as  thirty-two  thousand  two  liundred  and  seven- 
ty-seven degrees  of  Fahrenheit.f 

Steam. — It  is  evident,  tiiat  the  forces  of  expansion 
and  contraction,  by  heat  and  cold,  which  we  have  novv^ 
considered,  act  through  spaces  so  limited,  that  they  can 

*■  Another  remarkable  exception  to  this  law  is  found  in  freezing'  water 
When  near  the  freezing  point,  water  does  not  contract,  as  we  should  ex- 
pect, from  the  increase  of  cold,  but,  on  the  contrai-y,  expands ;  so  that  a 
given  quantity  fills  more  space,  when  frozen,  than  it  did  previously.  It  of 
course  becomes  specifically  lighter,  which  may  su^'gest  to  us  the  reason  of 
this  apparent  anomaly.  If  ice  were  heavier  than  water,  it  would  subside, 
as  soon  as  formed,  in  successive  flakes  to  the  bottom:  this  process  would 
continue,  nntil  the  whole  of  the  water,  however  deep,  would  become  solid. 
The  cli'octs  woidd  evidently  be  most  disastrous. 

t  Later  ohsen-ations  show,  that  owing  to  irrosularities  in  tho  contraction 
of  the  c'.ay,  Wedgewood's  instrument  is  not  to  be  relied  on.     Daiiiell's  is 
preferable — he  uses  platiiia. 
17* 


78  MECHANICAL  AGENTS. 

be  used  as  mechanical  agents  very  rarely,  and  only  un- 
der peculiar  circumstances.* 

A  much  more  important  agency.,  which  heat  exerts 
in  the  mechanic  arts,  results  from  its  power  of  changing 
the  form  of  bodies.  "With  the  operations  of  this  power 
we  are  all  familiar,  in  the  case  of  water.  Below  the 
temperature  of  thirty-two  degrees  of  the  common  ther- 
mometer, that  substance  exists  in  the  solid  form,  and  is 
called  ice.  Above  that  temperature,  it  passes  into  the 
liquid  state,  and  is  called  icater ;  and  when  raised  to 
the  temperature  of  tv\o  hundred  and  twelve  degrees, 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  it  passes  into  the  aeri- 
form state,  and  is  called  vapor.  It  is  to  this  last  change 
that  we  wish,  at  present,  principally  to  call  the  atten- 
tion of  the  reader. 

*  It  may  not  be  irrelevant  to  notice,  here,  the  injurious  effect  which 
is  sometimes  exerted  in  the  arts,  by  the  expansive  power  oi  heat.  In 
warm  weather,  for  example,  it  lengthens  the  pendulum  rod  of  a  clock, 
and  causes  it  to  go  too  slow  ;  a  derangement  which  we  shall  better 
appreciate,  when  we  are  told,  that  a  difference  of  the  one  hundredth 
part  of  an  inch,  in  the  length  of  the  rod,  will  occasion  a  loss  of  ten 
seconds  in  twenty-four  hours.  This  irregularity  in  the  going  of  a  clock 
is  corrected,  most  commonly,  by  means  of  what  is  termed  the  grid- 
iron pendulum, — the  rod  being  composed  of  several  parallel  bars,  like 
those  of  a  gridiron.  These  bars,  beiug  of  different  metals,  expand 
unequally,  and  serve,  therefore,  to  compensate  the  irregularities  of 
each  other.  Again,  when  we  suddenly  heat  one  side  of  a  glass  ves- 
sel, the  great  expansion  causes  it  to  break.  If  the  heat  is  applied  to 
both  sides,  at  the  same  time,  so  that  thev  heat  and  expand,  equally, 
there  is  little  danger  of  breaking.  //;  JWtture,  the  expansive  power 
of  heat  produces  the  most  salutary  effects,  by  creating  currents  of 
air,  which  carry  off  superfluous  heat  from  one  part  of  the  earth, 
while  thev  serve  to  mitigate  the  severity  of  cold  at  other  parts. 

The  effect  of  heat,  in  expanding  bodies,  is  strikingly  exemplified, 
also,  in  the  immense  system  of  steam-pipes,  which  are  frequently 
employed  to  heat  manufactories,  extending,  in  some  cases,  to  three 
hundred  feet,  in  a  straight  line.  "  When  fire-proof  factories,  of  iron 
and  brick,  were  first  built,  in  England,  the  columns,  which  supported 
the  successive  floors,  being  hollow,  were  intended  to  admit  steam, 
and  to  be  the  channels  of  communicating  heat  to  the  apartments.  It 
was  soon  found,  however,  that  the  lengthening  and  shortening  of  a 
columnar  range  of  eighty  or  ninety  feet  high,  by  a  changing  temper- 
ature ranging  as  high  as  one  hundred  and  seventy  degrees  of  Fahren- 
heit, was  so  considerable,  as  to  impair  the  stability  of  the  most  solid 
edifices.  Hence  horizontal  steam-pipes  were  substituted,  being  sus- 
pended near  the  ceiling,  by  swinging  rods  of  iron,  and  so  adjusted, 
3S  to  give  free  play  to  the  expansJon  and  contraction." — Dr.  Ure. 


STEAM.  79 

111  the  transition  of  water  from  the  hquid  state  to  the 
state  of  vapor,  or  steam,  an  immense  change  of  bulk 
takes  place.  In  this  change,  a  solid  inch  of  water  en- 
larges its  size  about  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and 
twenty-eight  times,  and  forms  one  thousand  seven  hun- 
dred and  twenty-eight  solid  inches  of  steam.  This 
expansion  takes  place,  accompanied  with  a  certain  force 
or  pressure,  by  which  the  vapor  has  a  tendency  to 
burst  the  bounds  of  any  vessel  which  contains  it.  The 
steam  which  fills  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and 
twenty-eight  solid  inches,  at  the  temperature  of  two 
hundred  and  twelve  degrees,  will,  if  cooled  below  that 
temperature,  return  back  to  the  liquid  form,  and  occu- 
py only  one  solid  inch,  leaving  one  thousand  seven 
liundred  and  twenty-seven  solid  inches  vacant ;  and  if 
it  be  included  in  a  close  vessel,  it  will  leave  the  sur- 
faces of  that  vessel  free  from  the  internal  pressure,  to 
which  they  were  subject  before  the  return  of  the  water 
to  the  liquid  form. 

If  it  be  possible,  therefore,  alternately  to  convert 
water  into  vapor,  by  heat,  and  to  reconvert  the  vapor 
into  water,  by  cold,  we  shall  be  enabled,  alternately,  to 
submit  any  surface  to  a  pressure  equal  to  the  elastic 
force  of  the  steam,  and  to  relieve  it  from  that  pressure, 
so  as  to  permit  it  to  move  in  obedience  to  any  other 
force  which  may  act  upon  it.  Or,  again  ;  suppose  that 
we  are  enabled  to  expose  one  side  of  a  movable  body 
to  the  action  of  water  converted  into  steam,  at  the  mo- 
ment that  we  relieve  the  other  side  from  the  like  pres- 
sure, by  reconverting  the  steam,  which  acts  upon  it, 
into  water ;  the  movable  body  will  be  impelled  by  the 
unresisted  pressure  of  the  steam  on  one  side.  AVhen 
it  has  moved  a  certain  distance,  in  obedience  to  this 
force,  let  us  suppose  that  the  effects  are  reversed.  Let 
the  steam,  which  pressed  it  forwards,  be  now  recon- 
verted into  water,  so  as  to  have  its  action  suspended : 
and,  at  the  same  moment,  let  steam,  raised  from  water 
by  heat,  be  caused  to  act  on  the  other  side  of  the  mov- 
able body  :  the  consequence  will  obviously  be,  that  it 


80  MI:cHA^^CAL  agents. 

will  now  change  the  direction  of  its  motion,  and  return, 
in  obedience  to  tlie  pressure  excited  on  the  opposite  side. 

•'•  Such  is,  in  fact,  the  operation  of  an  ordinary  law- 
pressure  steam-engine.  The  piston,  or  plug  which 
plays  in  the  cylinder,  is  the  movable  body  to  wliich  we 
have  referred.  The  vapor  of  water  is  introduced  upon 
one  side  of  that  piston,  at  the  moment  tiiat  a  similar 
vapor  is  converted  into  water  on  the  other  side,  and 
the  piston  moves  bv  the  unresisted  action  of  the  steam. 
When  it  has  arrived  at  the  extremity  of  the  cylinder, 
the  steam,  which  just  urged  it  forwards,  is  reconverted 
into  water,  and  the  piston  is  reheved  from  its  action. 
At  the  same  moment,  a  fresh  supply  of  steam  is  intro- 
duced upon  the  other  side  of  the  piston,  and  its  pres- 
sure causes  the  piston  to  be  moved  in  a  direction  con- 
trary to  its  former  motion.  Tims  the  piston  is  movea 
in  the  cyhnder,  alternately  in  the  one  direction  and  in 
the  other,  with  a  force  equivalent  to  the  pressure  of  the 
steam  which  acts  upon  it.  A  strong  metal  rod  pro- 
ceeds from  this  piston,  and  communicates  with  proper 
machinery,  by  which  the  alternate  motion  of  the  piston, 
backwards  and  forwards  or  upwards  and  dov/nwards, 
in  the  cyhnder,  may  be  communicated  to  whatever 
body  is  intended  to  be  moved." 

'•  The  power  of  such  a  machine  will  obviously  de- 
pend partly  on  the  magnitude  of  the  piston,  or  the  mov- 
able surface  which  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
steam  ;  and  partly  on  the  intensity  of  the  pressure  of  the 
steam  itself.  The  object  of  converting  the  steam  into 
water  by  cold,  upon  that  side  of  the  piston  towards 
which  the  motion  takes  place,  is  to  relieve  the  piston 
from  all  resistance  to  the  moving  power.  This  renders 
it  unnecessary  to  use  steam  of  a  very  high  pressure,  in- 
asmucli  as  it  will  have  no  resistance  to  overcome,  ex- 
cept the  friction  of  the  piston  with  the  cylinder,  and 
"he  ordinary  resistance  of  the  load  which  it  may  have 
to  move.  Engines  constructed  upon  this  principle, 
not  requiring,  therefore,  steam  of  a  great  pre^jsure.  have 
been  generally  called,  •'  low-pressure  engi-  ws.'      The 


STEAM. 


81 


reconversion  of  the  steam  into  water  requires  a  con- 
stant and  abundant  supply  ot"  cold  water,  and  a  fit  ap- 
paratus for  carrying  away  that  which  becomes  heated 
by  cooling  the  steam,  and  for  supplying  its  place  by  a 
fresh  quantity  of  cold  water.  It  is  obvious,  that  such 
an  apparatus  is  incompatible  with  great  simplicity  and 
lightness,  nor  can  it  be  applied  to  cases  where  the  en- 
gine is  worked  under  circumstances  in  which  a  fresh 
supply  of  water  cannot  be  had.'* 

*The  following  view.  Fig.  16,  of  Watt's  double-acting  condensing 
steam-engine,  will  render  this  description  more  intelligible  to   the 


young  reader.     A,   boiler  ;  B,   steam-pipe,  conveying  the  steam  to 
the  cylinder,  C  ;  D,  eduction-pipe,  which  conducts  the  steam  from 


82  MECHANICAL  AGENTS. 

"  The  reconversion  of  steam  into  water,  or,  as  it  is 
technically  called,  the  condensation  of  steam,  is,  how- 
ever, by  no  means  necessary  to  the  eflective  operation 
of  a  steam-engine.  From  what  has  been  above  said,  it 
will  be  understood,  that  this  effect  relieves  the  piston 
of  a  part  of  the  resistance  which  is  opposed  to  its  mo- 
tion. If  that  part  of  the  resistance  were  not  removed, 
the  pressure  of  steam,  acting  upon  the  other  side,  would 
be  affected  in  no  other  way  than  by  having  a  gieater 
load  or  resistance  to  overcome ;  and  if  that  pressure 
were  proportionately  increased,  the  effective  power  of 
the  machine  would  remain  the  same.  It  follows,  there- 
fore, that,  if  the  steam  upon  that  side  of  the  piston 
towards  which  the  motion  is  made  were  not  condensed, 
the  steam,  urging  the  piston  forwards  on  the  other  side, 
would  require  to  have  a  degree  of  intensity,  greater 
than  the  steam  in  a  low-pressure  engine,  by  the  amount 
of  the  pressure  of  the  uncondensed  steam  on  the  other 
side  of  the  piston." 

"  An  engine,  working  on  this  principle,  has  there- 
fore been  called  a  high-pressure  engine.  Such  an 
engine  is  relieved  from  the  incumbrance  of  all  the  con- 
densing apparatus,  and  of  the  large  supply  of  cold  wa- 
ter necessary  for  the  reduction  of  steam  to  the  liquid 
form  ;  for,  instead  of  being  so  reduced,  the  steam  is  in 
this  case  simply  allowed  to  escape  into  the  atmosphere. 
The  operation,  therefore,  of  high-pressure  engines  will 
be  readily  understood.  The  boiler,  producing  steam 
of  a  very  poAverful  pressure,  is  placed  in  communication 
with  a  cylinder,  furnished,  in  the  usual  manner,  with  a 
piston  ;  the  steam  is  allowed  to  act  upon  one  side  of  the 
piston,  so  as  to  impel  it  from  the  one  end  of  the  cylin- 
der to  the  other.  When  it  has  arrived  there,  the  com- 
munication with  the  boiler  is  reversed,  and  the  steam 

the  cylinder  to  the  condenser,  E  ;  F,  air-pump,  \vhich  removes  tlie 
water  and  air  from  the  condenser  ;  G  G,  cistern  of  cold  water,  sur- 
rounding the  condenser  ;  H  H,  pump  which  supplies  the  cistern,  G, 
with  cold  water  ;  I,  cistern  containing  hot  water,  from  the  condens- 
er ;  K,  pump  to  convey  the  hot  water  from  the  cistern.  T.  to  the 
boiler,  A. 


STEAM.  83 

IS  introduced  on  the  other  side  of  the  piston,  while  the 
steam,  which  lias  just  urged  the  piston  forwards,  is 
permitted  to  escape  into  the  atmosphere.  It  is  evident, 
that  tlie  only  resistance  to  the  motion  of  the  piston, 
here,  is  the  pressure  of  that  portion  of  steam,  which 
does  not  escape  into  the  air ;  which  pressure  will  be 
equal  to  that  of  the  air  itself,  inasmuch  as  the  steam 
will  continue  to  escape  from  the  cylinder,  as  long  as  its 
clastic  force  exceeds  that  of  the  atmosphere.  In  this 
manner,  the  alternate  motion  of  the  piston  in  the  cylin- 
der will  be  continued  ;  the  efficient  force  which  urges 
it  being  estimated  by  the  excess  of  the  actual  pressure 
of  the  steam  from  the  boiler  above  the  atmospheric 
pressure.  The  superior  simplicity  and  lightness  of  the 
high-pressure  engine  must  now  be  apparent ;  and  these 
qualities  recommend  it  strongly  for  all  purposes  in  which 
the  engine  itself  must  be  moved  from  place  to  place."* 

Mr.  Gordon  an  engineer  thus  enumerates  some  of  the 
applications  of  this  plastic  power,  when  treating  of  the 
substitution,  in  England,  of  inanimate  for  animate  pow- 
er, in  locomotion.  '•  Considered  in  its  application  to 
husbandry,  the  cottager  looks  forth  upon  the  neat  pal- 
ing which  fences  his  dwelling ;  it  was  sawed  by  steam. 
The  spade  with  which  he  digs  his  garden,  the  rake,  the 
hoe,  the  pick-axe,  the  scythe,  the  sickle, — every  imple- 
ment of  rural  toil  which  ministers  to  his  necessities,  are 
produced  by  steam.  Steam  bruises  the  oil-cake  which 
feeds  the  farmer's  cattle ;  moulds  the  ploughshare 
which  overturns  his  fields ;  forms  the  shears  which  clip 
his  flock  ;  and  cards,  spins,  and  weaves,  the  produce. 

"  Applied  to  architecture,  we  find  the  Briarean  arms 
of  the  steam-engine  every  where  at  work.  Stone  is 
cut  by  it,  marble  polished,  cement  ground,  mortar  mix- 
ed, floors  sawed,  doors  planed,  chimney-pieces  carved, 
lead  rolled  for  roofs  and  drawn  for  gutters,  rails  formed, 
gratings  and  bolts  forged,  paints  ground  and   mixed, 

*  Sec  Etliiiburi^h  Review,  No.  llljtTrt.  Inland  Transportation. 
In  Fig.  17,  on  tiic  next  p;ige,  a  view  of  llie  iiilerna!  construction  of  a 
loconiutive  iiigli-prcssure  steam-engine  will  enable  the  reader  the  bet- 


84 


MECHANICAL  AGE^■T5. 


paper  made  and  stained,  worsted  dyed  and  carpet  wove, 
mahogany  veneered,  door-locks  ornamented,  curtains 
and  furniture  made,  printed,  and  measured  ;  fringes,  tas- 


sels, and  bell-ropes,  chair-covers  and  chair-nails,  bell- 
wires,  linens,  and  blankets,  manufactured  :  china  and 
earthen-ware  turned  ;  glass  cut,  and  pier-glass  formed  ; 
the  drawing-room,  dining-room,  kitchen,  pantry,  closets, 
&-C.,  all  owe  to  steam  their  most  essential  requisites. 

terto  understand  this  description.  BB,  boiler  :  C,  chimney  ;  D,  door 
by  which  fuel  is  introduced  to  the  fire,  F  ;  P,  Piston  ;  S,  steam-pine. 


STEAM.  85 

"  Should  tlie  question  be  asked,  what  has  enabled 
the  inferior  proprietors  to  wear  two  hats  a  year  instead 
of  going  bare-headed  or  sporting  the  bonnet  which  their 
fathers  wore  ;  what  has  clothed  tiiem  in  suits  of  excellent 
broadcloth,  and  given  them  ability  to  ruffle  it  with  the 
first-born  of  the  land  ;  what  has  donned  for  their  wives, 
ladies'  apparel,  made  their  boys  rejoice  in  a  plurality  of 
suits ;  and,  in  the  bridal  hour,  busked  their  daughters 
in  robes,  delicate  in  texture  as  the  spider's  web,  beauti- 
ful in  color  as  the  rainbow's  hues,  and  for  elegance  such 
as  never  in  their  grandanie's  younger  days,  even  Duch- 
esses wore  ;  what  plaited  her  bonnet,  tamboured  her 
net,  wove  her  laces,  knitted  her  stockings,  veneered  her 
comb,  flowered  her  ribands,  gilded  her  buttons,  sewed 
her  shoes,  and  even  fashioned  the  rosette  that  orna- 
mented their  ties?     The  answer  is, — steam." 

We  have  thus  shown,  how  heat  may  be  employed  in 
producing  motion.  It  may  be  proper  to  remark,  in 
concluding  the  subject,  that  this  is  not  the  only  nor 
perhaps  the  most  important  use,  to  which  that  power- 
ful agent  mav  be  applied  in  the  arts.  Heat  forms  an 
almost  universal  fuser,  which  enables  us  to  reduce  the 
most  refractory  substances,  and  to  overcome  degiees 
of  cohesion  v/Iiich  seem  to  defy  every  other  agency. 
It  serves  not  only  to  prepare  our  food  and  warm  our 
habitations,  but  also  to  smelt  ores,  and  render  metals 
malleable  ;  to  harden  clay  for  the  various  uses  of  the 
builder  and  the  housekeeper ;  and  to  extract,  from  mix- 
tures of  alkali  and  sand,  that  beautiful  substance,  which 
decorates  our  tables,  reflects  our  persons,  and  guides 
the  feeble  vision  of  age  and  infirmity  over  the  page  of 
wisdom,  and  in  the  pursuits  of  industry. 

To  procure  this  principle,  therefore,  by  artificial  means, 
and  to  apply  it  to  the  various  purposes  of  life,  must  be 
one  of  the  most  important  and  comprehensive  of  all  the 
arts.  It  is  an  art,  however,  whicli  has  received  com- 
paratively but  little  attention.  The  chemical  laws  of 
lieat  have  been  investigated,  with  equal  ingenuity  and 
success.  But  the  application  of  these  laws  to  the  pro- 
8  s.  A. 


86  MECHANICAL   AGENTS. 

cess  of  producing  and  using  heat  has  been  less  studied, 
and  has  by  no  means  made  the  progi'ess.  which  might 
have  been  anticipated,,  from  its  importance.  One  rea- 
son of  it  may  be,  that  mankind  have  been  so  long  em- 
ployed in  building  fires,  and  applying  h.eat  to  its  various 
uses,  that  they  cannot  be  persuaded  that  they  need  in- 
struction in  reg"ard  to  a  subject  so  familiar :  and  they 
are  slow,  therefore,  to  study  it  on  strict  and  philosophi- 
cal principles.  Another  reason  undoubtedly  is,  that 
we  are  usually  so  engrossed  with  the  object  to  be  at- 
tained by  the  use  of  heat,  and  have  reason  to  be 
so  well  satisfied  with  our  success,  that  we  have  felt 
little  temptation  to  scrutinize  the  means  employed. 
Still,  it  is  an  unquestionable  truth,  that  the  economy 
of  heat  has  not  yet  passed  its  infancy,  and  is  probably 
destined  to  undergo  a  great,  and,  if  we  mistake  not,  a 
speedv,  revolution.  It  will  be  our  object,  in  the  re- 
maining paragraph  of  this  Chapter,  to  state  some  of  the 
defects  which  appear  to  characterize  this  art,  in  its 
present  state,  and  some  of  the  most  important  objects 
which  appear  to  be  still  unattained,  at  least  in  ordinary 
instruments. 

The  greatest  want,  connected  with  the  practical 
economy  of  heat,  is  that  of  fixed  principles,  to  regulate 
the  construction  of  furnaces  and  other  instruments. 
They  are  now  too  generally  made  at  random,  or  accord- 
ing to  rules  which  have  been  established  only  by  cus- 
tom, and  for  which  no  sufficient  reason  can  be  assigned. 
The  true  basis,  on  which  all  such  constructions  should 
rest,  must  be  found,  it  is  presumed,  in  the  discoveries 
which  have  been  made  by  chemical  philosophers,  re- 
specting the  difierent  j'adiating  and  conducti)ig  powers 
of  various  substances  and  surfaces,  as  well  as  respecting 
the  nature  of  combustion  and  the  capacity  of  certain 
principles  for  supporting  it.  These,  if  properly  consid- 
ered, would  suggest  the  requisite  conditions  for  gener- 
ating heat,  which  must  always  be  the  same  :  and  also 
the  proper  means  of  applying  or  using  it,  which  should 
evidently  vary,  with  the  object  to  be  attained.  Not 
the  least  among  the  errors  which  are  generally  commit- 


MACHINERY  EMPLOYED  IN  THE   ARTS.  87 

ted,  by  practical  men,  seems  to  be,  that  these  two  pro- 
cesses, so  essentially  distinct,  and  which  often  actually 
counteract  each  other,  are  confounded,  and  frequently 
carried  on  in  tlie  same  apartment.  A  furnace,  to  gen- 
erate heat  advantageously,  should  evidently  be  raised 
to  a  very  high  temperature,  which  can  be  effected  only 
by  surrounding  it  with  non-conducting  substances,  and 
by  giving  to  its  exterior  the  color  and  smoothness  least 
favorable  to  radiation.  But  these  very  circumstances, 
which  fit  a  furnace  for  creating  intense  heat,  entirely 
unfit  it  for  distributing  that  heat  to  an  apartment,  or 
applying  it  to  any  external  use.  Hence  might  be  in- 
ferred the  necessity  of  having  two  parts  to  the  appara- 
tus ; — one  for  generating  or  producing  heat,  and  the 
other  for  using  it.  There  are  defects,  also,  in  the 
prevailing  mode  of  supplying  air  to  the  fuel  to  be  con- 
sumed, in  the  form  which  is  given  to  that  fuel  as  a 
mass  ;  in  the  practice  of  adding  cold  fuel  frequently  to 
the  fire,  by  means  of  which  its  temperature  is  reduced, 
and  its  useful  effect  diminished ; — on  which  we  cannot 
enlarge  in  this  place,  but  which  have  a  material  influ- 
ence unfavorable  alike  to  economy,  convenience,  and 
efficiency.* 


CHAPTER  VII. 

3IACHIXERV  E3IPL0VED   IX  THE  ARTS. 

In  order  to  employ  the  mechanical  agents,  which 
have  now  been  considered,  it  is  generally  convenient, 
and  even  necessary,  to  interpose  between  them  and  the 
Avork  to  be  done  some  contrivance,  called  a  tool  or  ma- 

*  Since  this  paragraph  was  written,  (1834,)  the  introduction  of  the 
hot  blast  into  furnaces  has  created  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  indus- 
try. That,  with  other  related  improvements,  was  intended  to  be 
foreshadowed  in  the  passaije  above,  being,  at  tluit  time,  well  known 
to  the  writer.  A  friend  and  relative  of  his,  long  known  to  the  public, 
had  proposed  and  introduced  it,  on  a  limited  scale,  some  years  before, 
and  no  doubt  was  entert.Tined  that  it  was  destined  to  early  and  uni- 
versal ndoption. 


88  JIACHIXERY  EMPLOrED  IX  THE   ARTS. 

chine.  Before  we  proceed  to  examine  the  various  arts, 
it  will  be  important  to  attend,  for  a  moment,  to  the  con- 
struction and  use  of  these  machines. 

Man  does  not  excel  the  inferior  animals  more  in  in- 
telligence than  in  bodily  structure.  If  he  has  reason, 
which  enables  him  to  master  every  science,  so  has  he  a 
hand,  m  hich  fits  him  for  the  practice  of  every  art.  The 
bee  and  the  beaver  have  intelligence,  sufficient  to  guide 
them  in  rearing  habitations  and  procuring  food ;  and  they 
have  natural  implements,  which  qualify  them  perfectly 
for  the  work.  They  need  no  tools,  except  the  teeth 
and  extremities  with  which  Nature  has  provided  them. 
Man,  on  the  other  hand,  has  an  intelligence,  whicli 
qualifies  him  for  every  office  of  duty  or  pleasure  :  and, 
instead  of  being  fitted  with  natural  implements,  which 
could  be  employed  only  in  one  kind  of  work,  he  hcis 
the  hand,  fitted  to  fabricate  and  grasp  every  species  of 
artificial  tool,  and  equallv  ready  for  every  occasion  of 
peace  and  of  war. 

The  powers  of  the  human  hand  have  been,  in  all 
ages,  the  subject  of  admiration.  '•'  By  it,"  to  use  the 
language  of  Galen,  (Book  i.,  chapter  4,)  "  man  erects 
the  most  various  habitations,  intrenches  himself  within 
camps  or  fenced  cities,  and  weaves  the  garment  that 
protects  him  from  the  Summer's  heat  or  Winter's  cold. 
With  this,  he  forms  the  various  nets  and  snares,  which 
give  him  dominion,  as  well  over  the  inhabitants  of  the 
water  as  of  the  air  and  earth  ;  constructs  the  lyre  and 
lute,  and  the  numerous  instruments  employed  in  the 
several  arts  of  life  ;  erects  altars  and  shrines  to  the  im 
mortal  gods  ;  and  lastly,  by  means  of  the  same  instru 
ment,  he  bequeaths  to  posterity,  in  writing,  the  intel- 
lectual treasures  of  his  own  di\"ine  imagination  ;  and 
hence  we,  who  are  living  at  this  day,  are  enabled  to 
hold  converse  with  Plato  and  Aristotle,  and  all  the  ven- 
erable sages  of  antiquity."  Indeed,  without  tliis  par- 
ticular formation,  man,  with  whatever  sagacity  he  might 
be  endowed,  would  no  longer  be  the  being  he  now  is. 
"  No  bounteous  grant  of  intellect,  were  it  the  pleasure 
of  Heaven  to  make  such  grant,"  could  raise  him  to  his 


I.EVER. AVHEEL  AND  AXLE.  89 

present  lofty  rank,  in  tlie  scale  of  power  and  enjoy- 
ment, if,  instead  of  the  hand,  lie  had  been  formed  with 
the  claw  of  the  tiger,  or  the  talons  of  the  eagle,  or  the 
hoofs  of  the  elephant. 

It  is  not  without  reason,  then,  that  man  has  been  de- 
fined, somewhat  ludicrously,  to  be  a  tool-making  ani- 
mal. By  nature,  he  is  destitute  of  tlie  tools  which  are 
necessary,  in  order  to  supply  his  wants ;  but  finding 
himself  endowed  with  a  hand,  admirably  fitted  to  make 
and  wield  these  tools,  he  tasks  his  ingenuity,  and  soon 
produces  them.  How  wonderfully  does  even  the  rud- 
est cutting  instrument  enlarge  the  powers  of  the  human 
hand !  the  fabrication  of  many  things,  which  were 
previously  beyond  its  means,  becomes  easy,  and  that 
of  others  possible,  with  great  labor.  Add  the  saw  to 
the  knife  or  the  hatchet,  and  other  works  become  pos- 
sible, and  a  new  course  of  difficult  operations  is  brought 
into  view:  and  thus  docs  man  perpetually  advance  in 
power  and  resources,  till  at  last  he  provides  himself 
machines,  of  the  utmost  complexity  and  perfection  ; 
machines,  which  supersede  even  the  hand  itself,  and 
perform  the  most  delicate  and  difficult  operations,  with 
all  the  precision  and  regularity  of  an  intelligent  being. 

All  machines,  however  complicated,  are  formed  by 
combining  a  few  simpler  machines,  commonly  called 
the  mechanical  powers.  Under  this  head  are  usually 
enumerated  the  lever,  the  wheel  and  axle,  the  inclined 
plane,  the  screw,  the  wedge,  the  pulley  and  rope.  Of 
the  lever,  we  have  examples  in  the  common  crowbar 
and  handspike  ;  in  the  pump-handle  ;  in  the  hammer", 
wiien  used  in  drawing  a  nail ;  in  a  door  opened  by  the 
hand  ;  in  steelyards,  scissors,  &.C.*  Of  the  wheel  and 
axle,  we  have  examples,  in  the  windlass  used  for  rais- 
ing heavy  weights,  where  the  power  is  applied  to  the 
circumference  of  the  wheel,  and  the  weight,  or  resist- 

*  Levers  are  of  three  kinds.  Fig.  18,  is  a  lever  of  the  first  kind, 
resting  ou  the  fulcrum,  at  F,  to  raise  the  weight,  W,  the  power  being 
applied  at  P.  Fig.  19,  is  a  lever  of  the  second  kind  ;  W,  the  weight, 
being  between  the  fulcrum,  F,  and  the  power,  at  P.    Fig.  20,  is  a  lever 

s* 


90 


MACHINERY  EMPLOYED  IN  THE   ARTS. 


ance,  to  the  axle ;  also,  in  the  capstan  used  on  ship- 
board ;  in  the  crane ;  and  in  the  grindstone,  where 
the  instrument,  pressed  on  the  stone,  forms  tlie  weight 
or  resistance,  the  power  being  apphed  to  a  crank, 
which  corresponds  to  the  wheel.  It  is  obvious,  tliat 
this  wheel  and  axle  is,  in  principle,  merely  a  lever,  with 
the  addition  of  a  rotary  motion  around  the  fulcrum,  or 
axis.* 


of  the  third  kind  ;  the  power,  P,  being  applied  between  F,  the  ful- 
crum, and  W,  the  weight. 

Fig.  13.  Fig.  19. 


Fig.  20. 

P 


wd 


*  Fig.  21  represents  a 
wheel  and  axle  ;  P,  the 
power  applied  to  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  wheel  ; 
C,  a  cylinder,  or  axle  ;  and 
W,  the  weight  to  be  moved. 


Fig.  22  is  the  same,  with 
a  crank,  P,  in  place  of  the 
wheel. 


PULLEY  AND  ROPE. 


91 


Of  the  inclined  plane,  Fig.  23,  Fig.  23. 

we  have  an  example  in  tlie  plank, 
which  is  used  in  letting  down  heavy 
casks  into  a  cellar,  or  drawing  them 
up ;  and  the  screw  is  in  principle  the  same ;  being 
an  inclined  plane  of  the  spiral  form,  like 
the  stairs  which  we  sometimes  see  in  the 
inside  or  outside  of  a  building,  winding 
to  the  summit.  In  some  cases,  the  spi- 
ral or  screw  \sjixed,  and  the  power  is  ap- 
plied to  a  nut,  as  in  Fig.  24.  In  other 
cases,  the  nut  is  fixed,  and  the  screw,  with 
the  weight  attached,  is  moved  through  it  by  being  turn- 
ed, as  in  Fig.  25.     The  wedge.  Fig.  26,  is  another  spe- 

Fig.  25.  Fig.  26. 


L 


AT 


cies  of  inclined  plane,  being  formed,  in  most  cases,  of 
two  inclined  planes  united  at  their  bases.  In  addition 
to  the  common  wedge,  we  have,  as  examples  of  this  ma 
chine,  various  cutting  tools,  such  as  axes,  knives,  chisels, 
etc. ;  the  nails  and  spikes  to  be  driven  into  wood  ;  the 
coulter  of  the  plough,  and  the  blade  of  a  spade,  &c. 

The  pulley  and  rope  are  sufficiently  familiar,  without 
other  examples  than  in  the  annexed  figures,  (27, 28, 29,) 

Fig.  27.  Fig.  28.  Fig.  29. 


J 


92  MACHINERY  EMPLOYED   IX  THE   ARTS. 

and  are  the  same  in  principle  with  the  lever.  It  is  ap- 
parent, therefore,  that  the  simple  machines  may  be  re- 
duced to  three  classes  :  1.  The  levei',  and  the  wheel 
and  axle.  2.  The  inclined  j)lane,  screw,  and  icedge. 
3.  .The  jndley  and  rope  nuichine.  It  is  by  combining 
these  machines,  in  various  ways,  that  the  machinery 
now  employed  in  the  arts,  which  is  so  various,  and  in 
many  places  so  intricate,  has  been  constructed.  We 
propose,  in  this  Chapter,  to  consider  the  several  objects, 
some  one  or  more  of  which  it  is  aluays  proposed  to  at- 
tain, by  the  use  of  machinery. 

1.  The  first  is,  to  divide  a  resistance  too  great  to  he 
overcome  by  a  single  effort  of  the  movi7ig  poivcr,  so 
that  it  may  be  overcome  by  a  seiies  of  actions,  or  by 
the  continual  action  of  the  moving  power.  If  a  man 
were  to  apply  all  his  strength  directly  to  a  rock  or  to 
a  box  of  merchandise,  which  he  wishes  to  elevate  to 
some  point,  he  might  not  be  able  to  move  it  at  all ;  or 
at  least  might  not  be  able  to  raise  it  to  the  required 
height.  But  with  a  lever,  or  a  wheel  and  axle,  or  a 
pulley,  he  effects  his  object  with  ease.  Here,  he  does 
not  actually  gain  power.  He  gains  the  means  of  act- 
ing upon  the  resistance  by  degrees.  It  is  like  taking 
this  rock  to  pieces,  and  carrying  up  the  parts  separate- 
ly ;  and  a  little  reflection  must  convince  us,  that  when 
we  employ  a  machine,  we  exert  not  only  all  the  force 
which  would  be  requisite  in  such  a  case,  if  we  had  not 
used  the  machine,  but  also  as  much  more,  as  is  neces- 
sary to  overcome  the  friction  and  weight  of  that  ma- 
chine. It  is  a  great  error,  and  one  to  which  we  can- 
not too  often  advert,  to  suppose  that,  by  any  mechani- 
cal device,  force  can  be  generated,  or  even  augmented. 
Misled  by  such  a  notion,  projectors  have  imagined  that 
they  could  adjust  levers,  pendulums,  &,c.,  that  would 
act  with  a  power  greater  than  that  which  they  derived 
from  some  external  source.  It  is  obvious,  and  should 
ever  be  kept  in  mind,  that  the  inertia  of  matter,  in 
virtue  of  which,  no  particle  of  it  ever  moves,  except  in 
obedience  to  some  force  impressed  upon  it,  and  in  pro- 


PULLEY  AND  ROPE.  93 

portion  to  that  force,  renders  all  such  projects  entirely 
impracticable.  Universally,  to  overcome  a  resistance,  a 
force  must  be  exerted  equal  to  that  resistance ;  and,  as 
we  have  already  said,  if  it  be  exerted  through  a  ma- 
chine, the  force  must  be  absolutely  greater  than  the  re- 
sistance. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  force  is  made  up  of  velocity 
and  the  quantity  of  matter ;  and  hence,  if  the  mass  to 
be  moved,  or  the  resistance  to  be  overcome,  be  much 
heavier  than  the  moving  power,  we  equalize  them,  if 
we  can,  by  giving  to  the  resistance  a  much  slower  mo- 
tion than  that  ichich  the  power  has ;  thus  making  the 
greater  velocity  of  the  power  compensate  for  its  inferior 
weight,  or  mass.  In  all  these  cases,  however,  time 
must  be  lost ;  and  it  must  be  remembered,  as  a  general 
principle,  that  whatever  advantage  is  gained  in  respect 
to  power  is  lost  in  respect  to  time.*  A  man  with  a 
machine  does  no  more  than  in  the  same  time  he  would 
have  done  without  a  machine,  provided  he  could  have 
divided  the  resistance  into  separate  parts.  In  many 
cases,  however,  this  is  impossible  ;  and  hence  we  are 
enabled,  by  the  aid  of  machines,  to  eflect  what,  with- 
out them,  would  have  been  altogether  beyond  our 
power. 

2.  The  second  use  of  machinery  is  to  enable  us,  by 
changing  the  direction  of  a  force,  to  apply  it  more  ad- 
vantageously. Thus,  in  lifting  a  weight  out  of  a  well, 
or  raising  ore  out  of  a  niin-e,  it  is  obvious,  with  how 
much  more  effect  a  man  can  work,  at  the  arm  of  a 
windlass,  than  he  could  draw  directly  upon  the  rope, 
stooping  over  the  well.  There  are  other  cases,  in 
which  machinery,  by  changing  the  direction  of  a  force 
that,  in  its  natural  state,  is  useless,  enables  us  to  apply 
it  to  im[)ortant  purposes.      For  example  :    in  a  steam- 

*  Archiinetles  is  said  to  have  boasted,  that,  if  he  had  a  place  on 
which  to  stand,  he  would  move  the  earth.  Had  such  a  phice  been 
furnished  him,  and  had  he  been  able,  moreover,  to  move  with  the 
velocity  of  a  cannon  ball,  it  would  have  taken  him  a  million  of  years 
to  have  shifted  the  earth  only  the  twenty-seven  hundred  thousandth 
part  of  an  inch. 


94  MACHINERY  EMPLOYED  IN  THE   AKTS. 

boat,  the  piston  of  a  steam-engine  alternately  ascends 
and  descends,  along  a  perpendicular  ;*  whereas,  the 
vessel,  which  it  serves  to  propel,  is  required  to  move  in 
a  continued  horizontal  line.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
stream  of  a  saw-mill  moves  in  a  continued  horizontal 
or  perpendicular  line,  while  the  saw,  which  it  drives,  is 
required  to  have  an  alternating  perpendicular  move- 
ment. In  the  first  case,  the  rectihnear  alternating  mo- 
tion is  converted  into  a  circular  one,  by  means  of  the 
crank,  a  contrivance  which,  in  principle,  is  much  like 
the  common  winch,  or  like  the  key  which  winds  a 
clock  ;  and  then  the  circular  motion  of  the  water- 
wheels,  acting  against  the  water,  carries  the  vessel  for- 
ward in  a  continued  right  hne.  As  a  general  rule,  a 
circular  can  be  converted  into  a  continuous  rectilinear 
motion,  and  vice  versa,  by  means  of  a  toothed  wheel 
and  rack,  as  in  Fig.  30 ;  a  continuous  circular  into  an 
alternate  rectilinear,  as  in  the  saw-mill,  Fig.  31  ;    or 


rLpLTLnj- 


!'uiit^lTLrL''i-a_rLrLa 


into  an  alternate  circular,  as  in  the  balance-wheel  of  a 
watch,  Fig.  32,  and  the  pendulum  of  a  clock,  Fig,  33, 
(see  page  95,). 

3.  The  third  object  for  which  machinery  is  employ- 
ed is,  to  change  the  velocity.  In  some  cases,  the  work 
to  be  done,  as  spinning,  turning,  &,c.,  requires  a  great 
velocity.  In  others,  the  velocity  requires  to  be  smaller 
than  that  of  the  moving  power,  as  in  the  smoke-jack. 
This  change  may  be  «fiected  in  various  ways ;   for  ex- 

*  We  speak  here  of  the  engines  common  in  this  part  of  the  country. 
On  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries,  the  piston  has  a  horizontal  mo- 
tion. 


WHEEL  AND  AXLE.  95 

Fig.  32.  Fig.  33. 


ample,  by  the  lever.  If  it  be  a  lever  of  the  first  kind,* 
it  diminishes  or  increases  velocity,  according  as  the 
arm,  to  which  the  power  is  applied,  is  longer  or  shorter 
than  the  other  arm.  In  a  lever  of  the  third  kind,  ve- 
locity is  always  increased,  since  the  resistance  is  further 
from  the  fulcrum  than  the  power.  Hence,  in  the  hu- 
man arm,  sheep-shears,  tongs,  &c.,  which  are  levers  of 
the  third  kind,  a  great  part  of  the  power  is  expended 
in  procuring  velocity,  and  the  resistance,  therefore,  must 
be  proportionally  diminisiied. 

The  machine  most  frequently  employed, 
however,  in  transmitting  force  and  regula- 
ting velocity,  is  the  tvheel  and  axle.  If  a 
band  pass  from  the  circumference  of  one 
wheel  to  that  of  another  and  a  smaller  one, 
as  in  Fig.  .34,  it  is  evident,  that,  while  the  first 
and  greater  revolves  once,  the  second  must 
revolve  as  many  times  as  its  circumference 
is  less  than  that  of  the  larger.     This  is  the 

*  See  pages  89,  90,  Figs.  18,  19,  20,  for  representations  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  levers. 


Fiff.  34. 


96 


MACHINERY   K^IPLOYED   IN  THE   ARTS. 


Fig.  35. 


case  witli  tiie  spinning-wheel.  Here,  if  the  thread  were 
twisted  directly  by  the  fingers,  little  work  could  be  done 
But.  by  applying  the  power  to  a  large  wheel,  which,  by 
means  of  a  band.,  gives  motion  to  a  small  one.  called  the 
spindie,  a  great  velocity  is  created,  and  not  only  more 
work  is  done,  but  it  is  done  much  bett^.  Sometimes, 
the  band  passes  from  the  circumference  of  one  wheel 
to  the  axle  of  another,  when  there  is  a  much  greater 
gain  in  velocity.  As  bands  are  liable  to  slip,  and  can- 
not be   employed  where  the    resistance  is  very  great, 

or  the  machinery  is 
very  smooth,  machin- 
ists have  substituted 
teeth,  cut  in  the  cir- 
cumference of  wheels, 
and  pinions  raised  on 
their  axes,  as  in  Fig. 
35.  We  have  exam- 
ples of  these  in  the 
watch,  in  common 
mills,  &.C. 

In  the  larger  and  more  important  raachinen',  means 
are  sometimes  adopted,  to  increase  velocity,  diflerent 
from  any  that  I  have  yet  mentioned.  For  example : 
in  converting  cast  into  wrought  iron,  a  mass  of  metal, 
of  about  a  hundred  weight,  is  heated  almost  to  a  v.-hite 
heat,  and  placed  under  a  heavy  hammer,  moved  by 
water  or  steam  power.  This  is  raised  by  a  projection 
on  a  revolving  axis,  and  if  the  hammer  derived  its  mo 
mentum  only  from  the  space  through  which  it  fell,  it 
would  require  a  considerably  greater  time  to  give  a 
blow.  But.  as  it  is  important  that  the  softened  mass 
of  red-hot  iron  should  receive  as  many  blows  as  possi- 
ble before  it  cools,  the  form  of  the  cam  or  projection 
on  the  axis  is  such,  that  the  hammer,  instead  of  being 
lifted  to  a  small  height,  is  thrown  up  with  a  jerk,  and 
almost  tlie  instant  after  it  strikes  against  a  large  beam, 
whi'  h  acts  as  a  powerful  spring,  and  drives  it  down  on 
the  iron,  with  such  velocity,  that  by  these  means,  about 


APPLICATION  OF   FORCES.  97 

double  the  number  of  strokes  could  be  nmde  in  a  given 
time.  In  the  small  tilt-hammer,  this  is  carried  still 
further.  By  striking  the  tail  of  the  tilt-hammer  forci- 
bly against  a  small  steel  anvil,  it  rebounds,  with  such 
velocity,  that  from  three  to  tive  hundred  strokes  are 
made  in  a  minute. 

In  the  manufacture  of  scythes,  the  length  of  the  blade 
renders  it  necessary  that  the  workman  should  move 
readily,  so  as  to  bring  every  part  on  the  anvil  in  quick 
succession ;  this  is  etiected,  by  placing  him  in  a  seat 
suspended  by  ropes  from  the  ceiling ;  so  that  he  is  en- 
abled, with  little  bodily  exertion,  by  pressing  his  feet 
against  the  block  which  supports  the  anvil,  to  vary  his 
distance  to  any  required  extent.  It  is  stated  by  Mr. 
Babbage,  from  whom  we  borrow  these  two  illustrations, 
that  this  contrivance  lias  recently  been  applied  in  the 
manufacture  of  anchors,  an  art  in  which  it  is  of  still 
greater  importance. 

4.  A  fourth  object,  for  whicli  machinery  is  used,  is 
to  regulate  the  application  of  forces ;  that  is,  to  ren- 
der the  motion  uniform.  Most  forces  are  of  variable 
intensity  :  others  act  only.by  impulses ;  but,  by  employ- 
ing regulators,  governors,  or  fly-wheels,  the  motion 
communicated  to  the  machinery  may  be  rendered,  in 
a  good  degree,  uniform.  In  these  contrivances,  the 
machinist  avails  himself  of  the  inertia  of  matter,  in  vir- 
tue of  which  it  resists  any  change  of  velocity.  The 
common  fly-wheel  is  a  ponderous  wheel  of  iron,  (p.  81. 
Fig.  16,  Q,,)  which  requires  a  considerable  force  to  move 
it ;  but  which,  having  acquired  a  certain  motion,  tends 
to  retain  it,  and  serves,  therefore,  to  retard  the  machin- 
ery, when  it  would  go  too  fast,  or  to  accelerate  it,  when 
its  motion  is  becoming  too  slow.  The  machinery  does 
this,  to  a  certain  extent,  itself;  but  where  the  unifor- 
mity required  is  very  great,  its  self-regulating  power 
needs  to  be  aided  by  some  instrument  of  this  kind. 
The  power  which  the  fly-wheel  can  exert,  in  main- 
taining motion,  will  appear  from  a  fact  stated  by  Mr 
Babbage.  The  proprietor  of  a  large  manufactory  was 
9  s.  A. 


98  MACHINERY  EMPLOYED  IN  THE   ARTS. 

showing  to  a  friend  the  method  of  punching  holes  in 
iron  plates,  for  the  boilers  of  steam-engines.  He  held 
m  his  hand  a  piece  of  sheet-iron,  three  eighths  of  an 
inch  thick,  which  he  placed  under  the  punch.  Ob- 
serving, after  several  holes  had  been  made,  that  the 
punch  made  its  perforations  more  and  more  slowly,  he 
called  to  the  engine-man,  to  know  what  made  the  en- 
gine work  so  sluggishly,  when  it  was  found  that  the 
fly-wheel  and  punching  apparatus  had  been  detached 
from  the  steam-engine  just  at  the  commencement  of 
his  experiment. 

Another  regulating  machine  is  the  governor,  (p.  SI, 
Fig.  16,  g.)  which  resembles  a  pair  of  tongs  suspended 
bv  the  handle,  and  having  a  rotary  motion.  The  legs  will 
separate,  if  the  velocity  of  rotation  be  very  great ;  and 
in  the  governor  they  are  so  connected  with  the  mov- 
ing power,  that,  when  they  have  been  separated  too 
far,  or,  in  other  words,  v,hen  the  machinery  is  moving 
too  rapidly,  part  of  the  power  is  cut  off.  The  pendu- 
lum (p.  95,  Fig.  33)  is  another  regulator,  and  in  time- 
pieces is  invaluable. 

5.  Another  purpose,  to  which  machines  are  applied, 
is  tke  accumulation  of  force.  In  some  cases,  a  force 
has  too  httle  intensity,  to  do  the  reqiiired  work,  and  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  treasure  up  several  separate  efforts, 
to  be  discharged  simultaneously.  Of  this,  we  have  in- 
stances in  the  pile-engine  and  the  condensing  machine ; 
and  the  fly-wheel  is  also  used  for  the  same  purpose,  in 
coining.  In  other  cases,  the  force  accumulated  is  de- 
signed to  expend  itself  gradually,  and  through  a  consid- 
erable period,  as  in  coiling  up  the  spring  of  a  watch,  an 
operation  which  is  perfomied  in  an  instant,  but  which 
creates  a  power,  that  gives  motion  to  a  train  of  wheels, 
and  measures  the  progress  of  time  for  the  next  thirty 
hours. 

6.  Another  and  perhaps  the  most  essential  use  of 
machinery  is  in  enabling  us  to  employ  a  vast  amount 
of  force  which  icould  otherwise  he  lost  to  all  useful 
purposes.  Thus,  for  exEunple,  in  the  operations  perform- 


APPLICATION   OF   FORCES.  99 

ed  by  human  streni^th,  man  can,  in  many  instances,  ex- 
ert but  a  small  portion  of  iiis  own  power,  without  ma- 
chinery. Give  him  tiie  lathe,  however,  or  the  spinning- 
wheel,  or  the  loom,  so  that  he  can  use  his  feet  as  well 
as  his  hands,  and  his  efficiency  is  increased  twenty  and 
even  fifty  fold.  A  yet  more  striking  example  of  this 
saving  of  power  is  furnished  in  the  means  which  ma- 
chinery gives  us  of  employing  the  inanimate  forces  of 
Nature,  such  as  wind,  steam,  water.  Sic.  These  forces 
would  be  of  little  avail  to  mankind,  without  instruments 
interposed  between  them  and  the  work  to  be  done,  in 
order  to  modify  and  regulate  their  action.  Provided 
with  such  instruments,  w'c  arc  enabled  to  subject  to  our 
dominion  the  most  tremendous  agents  of  Nature,  and 
to  employ  them,  with  ease,  in  operations  w^hich  tran- 
scend alike  the  power  and  the  dexterity  of  man. 

7.  Machinery  renders  important  assistance,  inasmuch 
as  the  work  turned  off  by  it  is  perfectly  exact.  It  is 
very  difficult,  as  we  must  have  all  observed,  to  con- 
struct, by  means  of  the  hand  alone,  any  solid  figure 
with  perfect  precision  ;  and  more  especially,  if  that  fig- 
ure be  bounded  by  curved  surfaces.  It  is  vastly  more 
difficult,  however,  to  make  several  of  these  figures  exact- 
ly alike.  But  by  the  use  of  the  turning  lathe,  any  num- 
ber of  them  may  be  turned  oft'  so  perfectly  identical,  in 
figure  and  size,  that  they  cannot  be  distinguished.  Take 
the  manufacture  of  boxes,  for  an  example.  If  it  be  re- 
quired to  make  the  top  of  a  circular  box,  which  will  fit 
over  the  low^er  part,  it  may  be  done  in  the  lathe,  by 
gradually  advancing  the  tool  of  the  sliding- rest, — the 
proper  degree  of  tightness  between  the  box  and  its  lid 
being  found  by  trial.  After  this  adjustment,  if  a  thous- 
and boxes  are  made,  no  additional  care  is  required  ;  the 
tool  is  carried  up  to  the  stop,  and  each  box  will  be  equal- 
ly adapted  to  every  lid.  The  same  identity  pervades  all 
the  arts  of  printing.  The  impressions  from  the  same 
block,  or  the  same  copper-plate,  have  a  similarity,  which 
no  labor  could  produce  by  the  hand  ;  the  minutest  traces 
being  transferred  to  all  the  impressions,  and  no  omis- 


100  Machinery  employed  ix  the  arts. 

sions  occasioned  by  the  inattention  or  unskilfulness  of 
the  operator. 

It  would  be  easy  to  extend  this  enumeration  of  the 
important  objects  which  are  attained  by  the  use  of  ma- 
chinery. We  have  yet  said  nothing  of  its  influence  in 
saving  the  materials  employed  in  the  arts  ;*  in  accelera- 
ting the  progress  of  natural  operations  ;t  and  in  keeping 
such  a  register  of  its  own  operations.!  as  to  preclude,  in 
manv  instances,  the  evils  that  result  from  the  negligence 
and  knavery  of  human  agents.  AVe  have  already  ad- 
duced instances,  sutiicient  to  show,  that  it  is  by  the  power 
of  machinery  that  we  avail  ourselves  of  the  aid  of  natural 
agents,  and  employ  them  in  ways  which  are  at  once  the 
most  effectual  and  yet  the  least  expensive  and  trouble- 
some ;  that,  while  it  has  the  cflect,  in  a  great  degree,  to 
supersede  human  labor,  it  still  multiplies  the  products 
of  art,  and  renders  them,  at  the  same  time,  cheaper 
and  more  perfect.  Indeed,  it  seems  almost  impossible 
to  exaggerate  the  immense  influence,  which  the  use  of 
machinery  exerts  on  the  resources  and  enjoyments  of 
mankind.  It  is  not  merely  to  his  greater  prowess  in  the 
field  or  to  his  more  refined  policy  in  the  cabinet,  that 
civilized  man  owes  his  superiority  over  the  savage.  It 
is  rather  to  his  greater  skill  in  pressing  the  powers  of 
Nature  into  his  service,  and  making  them  perform  the 
tasks,  and  produce  the  fabrics,  which,  without  machin- 
ery, would  have  remained  unknown.  When  the  fu- 
ture historian  traces  the  progress  of  nations,  he  will  not 
lay  such  stress  as  lias  been  laid  by  former  historians,  on 
naval  and  military  exploits ;  on  the  intrigues  of  states- 

*  An  example  of  this  may  be  seen,  in  the  saving  which  is  effected 
by  substituting  the  saw  instead  of  the  axe  or  adze. 

t  Striking  instances  of  this  are  seen,  in  tanning,  where,  by  simply 
exhausting  the  air  from  the  vats,  a  work,  which  formerly  required  a 
year,  is  now  performed  in  a  few  days. 

+  Examples  of  these  contrivances  may  be  found,  in  manufactories, 
in  the  instrument  which  is  used  to  ascertain  the  vigilance  of  the 
watchman  employed  during  the  night  ;  in  a  machine  which  measures 
the  goods  as  they  pass  rapidly  through  the  hands  of  the  operator  ;  in 
a  kind  of  stop-cock,  which  registers  the  quantity  of  a  liquid  or  gas 
which  may  be  drawn  off  in  any  given  time  from  a  vessel  ;  &c.  &c. 


CONCLUSION.  101 

men  and  the  intricaeics  of  legislation :  he  will  inquire 
rather,  what,  in  each  age,  have  been  the  discoveries  of 
philosophers  and  the  inventions  of  mcclianicians ;  how 
art  contrived  to  enlarge  tire  capacity  of  a  people  for 
production,  and  how  enterprise  and  industry,  intelli- 
gence and  virtue,  were  employed  in  drawing,  from  the 
bosom  of  the  earth,  the  materials  of  their  wealth  and 
happiness. 

We  cannot  close  this  part  of  the  subject,  without 
pausing  to  admire  the  provision  which  the  Creator  has 
made,  for  an  unlimited  improvcm€7it  in  the  mechanic 
arts.  The  simple  machines  are  very  few  in  number ; 
and  yet,  by  combining  and  recombining  them,  accord- 
ing to  the  end  in  view,  new  instruments  may  be  multi- 
l^licd,  without  number  and  without  end.  It  is  said, 
that  not  less  than  three  thousand  and  five  hundred  pa- 
tents for  mechanical  improvements  have  been  taken 
out  in  the  United  States,  within  the  last  fifty  years.  If 
to  these  we  add  the  machines  which  have  been  invent- 
ed, during  the  same  period,  in  other  countries,  and  es- 
pecially in  England, — of  all  countries  most  eminent  in 
the  useful  arts  ;  and  if  to  these,  again,  we  add  the  con- 
trivances which  were  in  previous  use,  we  shall  have  a 
multitude  which  may  well  astonish  us.  Yet  these  form 
but  a  beginning.  New  forces  are  called  into  action, 
new  wants  exhibit  themselves,  in  this  rich,  enterprising, 
and  elegant,  age.  New  occasions  arise  for  the  exer- 
cise of  economy,  in  respect  either  to  materials  or  time  ; 
and  thus  the  inventive  powers  of  man,  which  never 
grow  weary,  are  roused  to  yet  greater  activity.  Vast 
and  almost  incredible  as  have  been  the  advances  made 
in  the  employment  of  machinery,  during  the  last  half 
century,  it  is  probable  that  the  next  fifty  years  will  ex- 
hibit results,  as  much  transcending  these,  as  they  tran- 
scend those  of  any  preceding  generation. 

Nor  can  we  forbear,  in  closing  this  subject,  to  advert 

to  the  manifold  traces  of  mechanism,  which  we  find  in 

the  works  of  God.     Human   inventions   are   in  truth 

but  humble  imitations  of  the  grander  machinery,  which 

9# 


102  MACHINERY  EMPLOYED  IN  THE   ARTS. 

displays  itself  in  the  movements  of  the  planetary  sys- 
tem ;  in  the  appearances  of  inanimate  Nature  ;  and, 
above  all,  in  the  structure  and  functions  of  animals  and 
plants.  Here,  we  find  a  skill  and  contrivance,  which 
are  worthy  of  the  Most  Higii,  and  which  leave,  at  an 
infinite  distance,  the  puny  efforts  of  human  art.  What 
mechanic  has  ever  yet  formed  an  instrument,  with  the 
flexibility,  delicacy,  and  force,  of  the  human  hand  ? 
What  human  artist  ever  yet  gazed  on  a  specimen  of 
his  own  handiwork,  like  that  which  called  forth  the 
admiration  of  the  Psalmist, — that  frame,  clothed  with 
skin  and  flesh,  and  fenced  about  with  bones  and  sin- 
ews, so  wonderfully  and  fearfully  made  by  the  finger 
of  Omnipotence !  Indeed,  the  most  distinguished  in- 
ventors have  been  content  to.  borrow  hints  for  their 
operations  from  the  humblest  of  the  Creator's  devices. 
When  Smeaton  had  reflected  long,  in  search  of  that 
form  which  would  be  best  fitted  to  resist  the  combined 
action  of  wind  and  waves,  he  found  it  in  the  trunk  of 
the  oak.  When  Watt  was  employed  to  conduct  a 
supply  of  water  across  the  Clyde  to  the  city  of  Glas- 
gow, he  borrowed  his  admirable  contrivance  of  a  flexi- 
ble water-main  from  considering  the  flexibility  of  the 
lobster's  tail ;  and  so  when  Mr.  Brunell  was  engaged  in 
superintending  the  construction  of  the  tunnel  under 
the  Thames,  it  was  from  observing  the  head  of  an  ap- 
parently insignificant  insect,  tiiat  he  derived  his  first 
conception  of  the  ingenious  sliield,  which  he  introduc- 
ed in  advance  of  the  workmen,  to  protect  them  from 
being  crushed  by  the  falling  in  of  the  earth. 

It  becomes  us,  then,  while  we  trace  the  operations 
of  human  ingenuity,  in  adapting  means  to  its  proposed 
ends,  to  raise  our  thoughts  to  that  Divine  Architect, 
who  has  imprinted  traces  of  His  wisdom  and  power  on 
all  His  works  :  causing  the  heavens  to  declare  His  glory, 
and  the  earth,  throughout  all  its  domains  of  land,  and 
sea,  and  air,  to  show  forth  His  handiwork ! 


SUMMARY  OF  PRINCIPLES.   IN  PART   II.  103 


SUMJIARY  OF  PRINCIPLES,  IN  PART  II. 

AGENTS  EMPLOYED  IN  THE  ARTS. 

I.   Chemical  Agents. 

i.  They  all  depend  on  one  principle  called  Affinity. 

^1.  Affinity  is  the  tendency  which  particles  of  differ- 
ent kinds  iiave  to  unite,  wlien  brouglu  very  near  each 
other. 

•2.  (a)  It  causes,  two  fluids  or  gases,  when  shaken 
together,  to  intermingle,  if  they  have  affinity,  forming 
a  chemical  compound. 

(b)  It  causes  solids,  when  placed  in  liquids  for  which 
they  liave  an  affinity,  to  dissolve.  These  solutions  have 
the  following  properties,  a  They  sensibly  retain  the 
properties  of  the  ingredients,  b  A  liquid  can  generally 
dissolve  only  a  certain  quantity  of  a  solid,  c  Having 
dissolved  a  portion  of  one  solid,  it  can  afterwards  do 
the  same  for  another  and  different  solid,  d  It  will 
precipitate  any  solid,  which  it  may  hold  in  solution, 
provided  another,  for  which  it  has  a  stronger  affinity, 
be  presented,  and  will  unite  with  the  second.  This 
is  called  elective  affinity.  When  there  is  but  one  de- 
composition, and  one  new  composition,  it  is  called 
single  elective  affinity.  When  there  are  two,  it  is  call- 
ed doLchle  elective  affinity. 

(c)  Affinity  also  causes  a  more  intimate  union  be- 
tween bodies,  giving  rise  to  more  energetic  action,  and 
producing  new  properties.  These  compositions  have 
the  following  properties  :  a  Tiie  ingredients  wholly 
disappear,  and  entirely  new  characters  are  developed. 
b  The  nature  of  these  characters  depends  on  the  pro- 
portion in  which  the  ingredients  combine  ;  different 
proportions  giving  rise  to  entirely  different  substances, 
or  compounds,  c  The  number  of  proportions,  in  which 
the  same   ingredients  combine,  is  definite   and   small, 


104  SUMMARY  OF   PRINCIPLES.   IX  PART  II. 

being  always  capable  of  being  represented  by  a  niim 
ber,  or  by  some  multiple  of  that  number. 

Observation.  The  proper  management  of  this  prin- 
ciple constitutes  much  of  the  art  of  the  tanner,  bleacher, 
dyer,  Slc.  &,c. 

11.  Mechanical  Agents. 

1.  Chemical  agents  act  only  at  insensible  distances, 
and  change  only  the  interior  structure  of  bodies. 

2,  Mechanical  agents  act,  on  the  contrary,  at  sensi- 
ble distances,  and  change  only  the  position  or  form  of 
their  masses. 

To  understand  the  nature  of  these  agents,  we 
must  famiharize  our  minds  to  the  three  funda- 
mental laws  of  motion.     Namely, 

i.  Masses  of  matter  never  change  their  state  of 
rest  or  motion,  unless  some  force  be  impressed 
upon  them. 

ii.  This  change  is  always  proportioned  to  the 
force,  and  in  the  direction  of  this  force. 

iii.  To  every  action  of  one  body  upon  another, 
there  is  an  equal  and  contrary  reaction. 
Tlie  mechanical  agents  are,  animate  and  inanimate 
forces. 

I.  Animate  forces  consist  of  the  strength  of  men  and 
animals. 

(a)  The  time  in  which  they  can  be  exerted  is  neces- 
sarilv  limited. 

(b)  The  manner  must  be  determined  by  the  struc- 
ture and  habits  of  the  animal. 

(c)  The  relative  value  of  different  animals  depends 
on  the  expense  of  keeping  them,  the  amount  of  force 
they  can  exert,  and  the  variety  of  ways  in  which  they 
can  be  used  ;  from  which  we  infer,  that,  of  all  animate 
forces,  that  of  man  is  the  least  useful,  and  that  of  the 
horse  the  most  so. 

II.  The  inanimate  forces  are,  gi'avity,  elasticity, 
and  lieat. 

i.  Gravity. 

(a)  Gravity  acts  on  solids,  as  on  bodies  falling  through 


SUMMARY  OF  PRINCIPLES,  IN  PART  II.  105 

space,  descending  inclined  planes,  &-c.,  and  causes  them 
to  move  \vith  a  uniformly  accelerated  velocity. 

(b)  Gravity  acts  on  tvater  in  the  case  (1)  of  water- 
icheels  ;  (2)  of  tvater  flowing  through  orifices,  tubes, 
canals,  itc. ;  (3)  by  hydrostatic  pressure,  in  case  of 
the  hydrostatic  bellows,  and  of  Brahmah's  press ;  of 
water  rising  to  its  own  level  in  bent  tubes ;  and  of  the 
method  of  specific  gravity  discovered  by  Archimedes. 

(c)  Gravity  acts  on  air,  in  the  case  of  the  common 
pump,  barometer,  windmills,  &c. 

ii.  Elasticity  acts  on  air,  in  the  case  of  fire  engines, 
airpumps,  airguns,  &c.,  also  on  solids  as  in  watch-springs, 
iii.  Heat  acts  as  a  mechanical  agent. 

1.  By  expanding  bodies,  as  in  metals. 

This  property  of  heat  gives  rise  to  instruments  for 
measuring  the  degrees  of  it,  as  the  thermometer  and 
pyrometer. 

2.  Heat  acts  as  a  mechanical  agent,  by  changing  the 
form  of  bodies,  as  in  steam. 

The  numerous  other  important  uses  of  heat,  in  the 
arts,  call  for  improvements  in  the  prevailing  and  very 
defective  modes  of  generating  and  supplying  it. 

Machinery  employed  in  the  arts. 

i.  Its  existence  is  to  be  attributed,  1.  To  man's  want 
of  natural  implements  ;  2.  To  the  admirable  provision 
made,  for  the  invention  and  construction  of  machinery, 
in  the  ingenuity  of  man's  mind  and  the  conformation 
of  his  hand. 

ii.  All  machines,  however  complex,  are  composed  of 
certain  elements,  called  simple  machines,  namely,  the 
lever,  the  wheel  and  axle,  the  inclined  plane,  the  screw, 
the  wedge,  the  pulley  and  rope. 

iii.  The  various  and  complex  machinery,  which  has 
been  formed  by  combining  these  elements,  is  useful : 

1.  As  enabling  us  to  overcome  great  resistances,  by 
diminishing  their  velocity,  and  operating  upon  them  for 
a  length  of  time. 

2.  As  enabling  us  to  change  the  direction  of  the 
movinff  force. 


lOG  SUMMARY  OF   PRINCIPLES,   IN  PART  II. 

3.  As  enabling  us  to  vary  the  velocity  of  the  resist- 
ance, especially  by  increasing  it. 

4.  As  enabling  us  to  regulate,  or  render  uniform,  the 
motion  of  the  machinery. 

5.  As  enabling  us  to  accumulate  force,  to  be  expend- 
ed instantaneously,  or  through  a  long  series  of  separate 
actions. 

6.  As  enabling  us  to  employ  a  vast  amount  of  force, 
which  would  otherwise  be  lost. 

7.  As  it  enables  us  to  render  our  work  more  exact, 
and  the  different  specimens  more  identical 


PART   III. 

RATIONALE*  OF  THE  ARTS. 


Having  completed  our  sketcli  of  the  principal  agents 
employed  in  the  Arts,  as  well  as  of  the  machinery  by 
which  they  are  applied  to  various  uses,  we  proceed  to 
consider  the  Arts  themselves.  It  will  be  our  object  to 
state,  perspicuously  but  briefly,  the  most  important  prin- 
ciples applicable  to  each  art,  and  tiie  influence  which 
has  been  exerted  by  science,  in  facilitating  and  improv- 
ing its  various  operations.  We  shall  also  endeavor  to 
keep  steadily  in  view,  the  great  ends,  to  which  all  im- 
provements should  be  directed,  and  to  suggest  some 
means,  by  which  their  progress  might  be  hastened. 
The  task  is  evidently  too  extensive  for  a  work  like  the 
present ;  and  the  Author  will  feel  amply  satisfied,  if  he 
can  succeed  in  presenting  any  views,  which  are  calcu- 
lated to  awaken  inquiry  among  the  laboring  classes,  or 
to  invest  with  interest,  to  the  miscellaneous  reader,  a 
subject  so  obviously  important,  and  yet  so  generally 
neglected. 

He  proposes  to  consider,  in  the  order  here  indicated, 
the  following  Arts : 

I.  Agriculture.  II.  Architecture.  III.  Cloth  Man- 
ufacture, including  Dyeing,  Bleaching,  and  Paper-mak- 
ing. IV.  The  Domestic  Arts,  including  Brewing,  Dis- 
tilling, and  Wine-making.  V.  The  Arts  of  Working 
Metals.  VI.  The  Manufacture  of  Glass  and  Porce- 
lain. VH.  The  Arts  of  Copying.  VIII.  Locomo- 
tion. IX.  Some  reflections  on  the  progress  of  the 
Arts,  past,  present,  and  to  come.  X.  Influence  of  the 
Arts  on  National  Welfare. 

•  That  is,  an  explanation  of  the  principles. 


108  AGRICULTURE. 

CHAPTER  I. 

AGRICUI-TVRE. 

This  has  justly  been  termed  the  parent  of  a  1  the 
arts.  The  art  first  practised  by  mankind ;  the  one 
from  which  they  derive  the  means  of  subsistence  ;  and 
which  is  connected,  therefore,  most  intimately  with  the 
comfort  of  all ;  forming  the  occupation,  too.  of  a  large 
majority,  in  every  civilized  country,*  and  exerting  upon 
their  health,  happiness,  and  moral  habits,  the  most  ben- 
eficial influence ;  it  must  ever  occupy  the  highest  place 
in  the  estimation  of  the  statesman  and  philanthropist. 
We  assign  it  this  place,  however,  not  so  much  on  ac- 
count of  its  importance,  as  because  it  serves  to  illus- 
trate, in  a  striking  manner,  the  dependence  of  the  arts 
on  chemical  and  physical  science.  In  as  far  as  Agri- 
culture proposes  to  improve  the  natural  productiveness 
of  the  soil,  it  must  derive  its  principles  chieflv  from 
chemistry.  In  as  far  as  it  proposes  to  plough,  sow,  and 
perform  the  other  processes  of  husbandry,  with  the  least 
possible  labor,  it  must  be  indebted  to  mechanics.-f 

It  appears,  then,  that  there  are  two  branches  of  Agri- 
culture, which  will  successively  call  for  our  attention, — 
Chemical  and  Jtlechaniccd. 

I.  Chemical  Agriculture. — One  of  the  first  objects 
of  the  husbandman  is,  to  increase  the  natural  produc- 
tiveness of  tlie  soil.     Few  soils  possess,  by  nature,  a 

*  In  England,  it  is  otherwise.  It  has  been  computed,  that  not 
more  than  one  third  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  country  are  employed 
in  husbandry.  In  every  other  country,  the  proportion  is  much  larger. 
In  Fiance,  tico  iltirds  ;  in  Italy,  a  little  more  than  three  fourths  ; 
and  in  the  United  States,  not  much  less  than  Jive  sixths. 

+  Oar  limits  do  not  permit  us  to  explain  the  application  to  Agricul- 
ture of  other  sciences.  It  must  be  obvious,  however,  that,  in  order 
to  deal  with  plants,  we  ought  to  know  something  of  their  structure, 
properties,  and  use  ;  and  this  we  learn  from  botany.  In  that  branch 
of  husbandry  which  relates  to  animals,  we  require  some  knowledg 
of  animal  physiology  and  medical  science. 


CHEMICAL  AGRICULTURE  109 

sufficient  supply  of  those  substances  which  form  the 
food  of  plants  ;  and  where  they  do  possess  such  a  sup- 
ply, they  would  still,  unless  properly  treated,  soon  be- 
come exhausted,  by  culture.  Hence  the  importance  of 
providing  artificial  means  for  improving  or  sustaining 
the  productive  qualities  of  the  soil.  These  means  con- 
sist in  fallowing,  green  crops,  convertible  or  alternat- 
ing husbandry,  burning,  irrigation,  and  manure. 
To  which  of  these  the  farmer  shall  resort,  in  any  given 
instance,  is  an  all-important  question  ;  and  one  which 
he  cannot  easily  settle,  without  the  aid  of  chemistry. 
If  land  be  unproductive,  there  must  be  some  defect  in 
the  constitution  or  condition  of  the  soil ;  and  often- 
times this  defect  can  only  be  discovered  by  chemical 
analysis.  Does  this  analysis  show  that  the  soil  contains 
some  noxious  principle,  such  as  the  salts  of  iron  ? 
Chemistry  teaches  how  this  principle  may  be  decom- 
posed, by  means  of  lime.  Is  it  asked,  what  kind  of 
limestone  should  be  employed,  in  any  given  case  ?  A 
simple  chemical  test  will  enable  us  to  resolve  the  doubt. 
The  value  of  chemistry  will  become  more  apparent, 
however,  if  wc  attend  a  little  to  the  rationale  of  agri- 
culture. 

It  has  been  found,  by  careful  observation  and  experi- 
ment, tjiat  the  principal  food  of  plants  is  carbonic  acid 
gas,  atmospheric  air,  and  the  humates*  of  potass  and 
lime;  all  which  are  mixed  with  water,  and  presented 
to  the  suckers,  at  the  tip  of  the  root-fibres,  to  be  thence 
carried  into  the  interior  of  the  plant.  The  first  two 
are  also  taken  in  through  the  leaves.  The  carbonic 
acid  gas  is  necessary,  in  order  to  supply  the  carbon 
which  forms  the  solid  or  woody  fibre  of  the  plant.  The 
atmosphere  is  needed,  partly  in  order  to  supply  azote, 
which  is  a  chief  ingredient  in  the  gluten  of  wheat  and 
in  various  other  plants,  and  partly  in  order  to  supply 
oxygen.     The  humates  of  potass  and  lime  are  necess- 

■  A  humnte  is  a  coinpDuiid,  formed  by  tlie  union  of  pol.i-is  or  lime  wilh  liumic  ncid. 
Humtc  ucid  13  more  generally  known  in  the  Imoksliy  tlie  name  of  ulmic  uciil.— It  is  prop- 
er, also,  to  add,  that,  according  to  the  latest  writers  on  Vegetable  Physiology  (such  as 
Liebig  and  Johnston),  the  influence  of  the  humates  is  inconsiderable. 

10  S.    A. 


110  AGRICCLTCRE. 

ry,  because  the  huraic  acid  (in  addition,  doubtless,  to 
other  important  uses  which  are  not  well  understood.) 
renders  soluble  the  lime  and  potass,  which  must  enter 
more  or  less  into  the  composition  of  all  plants,  and  are 
in  some  the  principal  constituents. 

These,  then,  being  the  food  of  plants,  it  becomes 
the  object  of  the  farmer  to  procure  the  most  ample  sup- 
ply of  them.  In  the  wise  economy  of  Xature,  large 
quantities  of  these  substances  are  constantly  generated. 
Carbonic  acid  is  continually  thrown  out,  by  the  res- 
piration of  animals,  and  by  the  combustion  and  putre- 
faction of  vegetable  substances.  The  different  parts 
of  the  atmosphere  are  mingled  together  by  winds  or 
changes  of  temperature,  and  are  successively  brought 
into  contact  with  tlie  surface  of  the  earth,  so  as  to  exert 
their  fertilizing  influence  ;  while  potass  and  lime,  togeth- 
er with  humen,*  form  a  large  part  of  the  substance  of 
the  earth.  Ample  magazines  of  the  food  for  plants 
having  been  thus  provided,  a  principal  office  of  the 
husbandman  consists  in  collecting  and  applying  it  to  the 
soil  under  his  care. 

It  must  be  remembered,  that  none  of  these  principles 
are  taken  into  plants  at  the  root,  except  when  dissolv- 
ed in  water.  The  first  object,  then,  to  be  attended  to, 
in  agriculture,  is,  to  have  the  soil  supplied  \vith  water, 
and  to  have  this  water  minutely  diffused  through  its 
mass.f  This  is  effected,  in  part,  by  dividing  the  soil, 
with  the  plough  and  haiTOw,  so  that  the  rain  may  enter, 
and  be  circulated,  while  superfluous  water  is  allowed  to 
escape  by  evaporation.  Another  mode  of  carrying  off 
superfluous  water,  while  it  serves  to  supply  the  necessary 
moisture  to  the  soil,  is  draining,  which,  in  this  country, 
is  not  sufficiently  appreciated.      Care  must  be  taken, 

*  A  name,  given  to  the  substance  yielded  by  the  decomposition  of 
vegetable  or  animal  matter.  It  is  a  black  or  brown  powder,  called, 
by  Davy,  "a  peculiar  extractive  matter  of  fertilizing  quality,"  and 
which  the  chemists  of  France  have  denominated  terreau. 

t  It  is  not  unlikely  that  water,  besides  being  a  purveyor  of  food  for 
plants,  is  itself  an  aliment.  Hydrogen  forms  a  large  part  of  manj 
plants. 


CHEMICAL  AGRICULTURE.  Ill 

however,  lest  the  water,  in  its  circulation,  move  so  rap- 
idly, that  the  roots  cannot  take  up  the  nutritive  princi- 
ples which  it  contains.  On  the  other  hand,  it  ma}'  move 
too  slowly,  so  as  to  choke  up  the  mouths  of  the  small 
vessels,  or  it  may,  by  deposition,  lose  its  nutritive  prop- 
erties. It  is  also  necessary  that  the  quality  of  the  subsoil 
should  be  attended  to  :  as,  in  cases  where  this  soil  con- 
sists of  still'  clay,  or  marl,  or  rock  lying  in  a  horizontal 
position,  the  water  settles,  and  remains  stagnant.* 

After  thus  providing  for  the  proper  diffusion  of  water 
through  the  soil,  the  next  duty  of  the  husbandman  is, 
to  see  it  supplied  with  the  necessary  quantity  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  and  of  the  humates  before  mentioned. 
The  first  of  these  substances  is  produced,  not  only  by 
the  respiration  of  animals,  but  also  by  the  decomposition 
of  vegetable  and  animal  substances ;  from  which  decom- 
position, the  humic  acid  is  also  freely  formed.  Now, 
in  order  to  procure  this  supply  of  vegetable  matter 
for  decomposition,  we  may,  in  the  first  place,  allow 
land  to  Yic  fallow,  by  which,  the  crop  of  weeds  will  rot, 
and  form  a  vegetable  mould ;  or,  secondly,  we  may 
raise  green  crops,  as  they  are  called,  consisting  of  buck- 
wheat, clover,  pease,  &ic.,  which  are  to  be  ploughed  in, 
W'hile  standing,  and  before  they  are  ripe  ;  or,  in  the 
third  place,  we  may  apply  vegetable  and  animal  ma- 
nures, in  which  the  process  of  decomposition  has  al- 
ready commenced.  The  last  two  of  these  methods  are 
much  preferable  to  the  first,  which  is  now  little  fol- 
lowed.f 

*  There  are  three  kinds  of  drains, — open,  under,  and  furrow, 
drains.  The  under  have  a  great  advantage  over  open  drains,  in 
point  of  durability,  efficiency,  and  ultimate  cheapness.  They  are 
not  enough  used,  by  .•\merican  farmers.  The  furrow  drain  is  of  re- 
cent introduction,  and  is  hardly  known,  except  in  Scotch  and  F^nglish 
husbandry.  The  field  is  laid  into  ridges,  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet 
broad,  injlhe  direction  of  its  slope,  and  nnder-drains  are  laid  in  every 
central  furrow. 

t  "  Fallowins:,"  says  Chaptal,  "  was  necessary,  as  long  as  grains 
only,  all  of  which  exhaust  the  lands,  were  cultivated.  But  at  this  day, 
when  we  have  succeeded  in  establishing  the  cultivation  of  a  great 


112  AGRICULTURE. 

Another  measure,  introduced  by  modern  agricultur- 
ists, and  the  object  of  which,  more  especially,  is  to  pre- 
vent the  exhaustion  of  the  soil,  is,  the  rotation  of  crops. 
It  is  founded  on  the  three  following  facts  :  First,  some 
plants,  such  as  wheat,  rye,  &c.,  as  they  have  but  few 
leaves,  and  can  derive  but  little  nourishment  from  the 
air,  are  found  to  draw  much  more  from  the  earth  than 
the  green  crops,  and  those  of  the  I'oot  kind,  which  do  not 
mature  their  seeds  ;  and  therefore,  if  cultivated  con- 
tinuously, will  in  a  short  time  entirely  exhaust  the  soil. 
Hence  the  giains  are  succeeded  by  clover,  beets,  tur- 
nips, potatoes,  &-C.  Secondly,  each  species  of  plants 
has  its  own  proper  food,  so  that  a  soil,  containing  (as 
most  soils  do)  food  for  different  species,  may  yield 
largely  to  one,  after  the  food  for  others  is  exhausted. 
Thirdhj,  plants  with  bulbous  roots,  like  the  potato, 
turnip,  beet,  dec,  serve  to  divide  and  loosen  the  soil, 
and  at  the  same  time  send  down  their  roots  and  radi- 
cles to  its  lower  stratum,  whereas  the  roots  of  grain, 
&-C.,  spread  near  the  surface.* 

Manures  are.  mineral,  vegetable,  or  animal. 

1.  Among  the  mineral  manures,']  are  clay,  sand.  marl. 
and  lime,  in  its  various  forms  of  quicklime,  chalk,  g}p- 
sum,  &c.  &.C.  Which  of  these  is  to  be  employed  on  a 
piece  of  land  depends,  of  course,  on  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  and  the  plants  to  be  reared.  If  the  soil  be  defi- 
cient in  the  power  of  holding  or  circulating  water,  this 
deficiency  is  to  be  supplied  by  sand,  if  there  is  an  ex- 
cess of  clay  ;  or  by  clay,  if  there  is  too  much  sand  ;  or 
by  marl,  according  as  it  has  predominance  of  clay  or 
lime.  If,  again,  the  soil  is  wanting  in  some  of  those 
principles  which  constitute  the  food  of  plants,  it  must 

variety  of  rools  and  artificial  grasses,  the  system  of  fallovring  can  no  lonjer  be  sup- 
ported by  the  shadow  of  a  good  reason." 

*  The  advantage  of  root  hosliandr>- results,  so  far  as  the  soil  is  conrerneii,  from  t'le 
fact  that  plants  e^khaust  the  soil  most  when  sroing  to  seed  Ilen.ce  biennial  plants,  like 
the  tarnip  and  beet,  prove  much  less  exhausting  than  the  grains. 

t  Slrictlv  speakin?,  mineral  mannri'S  are  not  so  mnc'u  food  for  plants  as  agents  for 
preparing  their  food,  and  also  for  givins  firm,  stren§:th,  and  firmness,  to  their  stnic- 
t'Jre.  Another  use  is  to  prepare  vegetables  to  l)ecome  food  for  animals.  The  bones 
of  animals,  the  shell  of  the  e^,  &r..,  are  formed  from  the  lime  and  pbosphorns  takeo 
in  with  the  food  and  drink. 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  MANURES.  113 

be  manured  by  substances  best  calculated  to  aftbrd 
these  principles.  We  have  already  remarked,  that  lime 
and  potass  enter  into  the  composition  of  plants,  as  may 
be  proved  by  reducing  them  to  ashes,  which  will  always 
be  found  to  contain  more  or  less  of  these  substances. 
It  is  obvious,  that  they  are  introduced  through  the 
roots  into  the  plants,  and  that,  if  we  would  supply 
them,  it  must  be  by  mingling  them  with  the  soil. 
Hence,  one  of  the  important  uses,  in  manuring,  of  ash- 
es, of  gypsum,  or  the  sulphate  of  lime,  of  quicklime, 
&c.  In  the  preference  of  one  of  these  manures  to 
another,  we  must  be  determined  by  the  nature,  both  of 
tiie  soil  and  of  the  crop.  If  the  soil  be  clay,  it  requires 
lime  :  and  if  the  crop  be  Indian  corn,  clover,  the  grass- 
es, &c..  it  should  be  gypsum,  rather  than  quicklime. 

•2.  Animal  manures  (among  which  are  included  the 
dung  of  various  animals,  urine,  bone-dust.*  horn-shav- 
ings, fish,  woollen  rags,  &c.)  are  particularly  valuable, 
first,  because  they  decompose  rapidly  ;  and  secondlv, 
because  tliey  afford  large  quantities  of  azote,  a  principle 
necessary  in  all  plants,  but  especially  so  in  wheat,  cab- 
bage, broccoli,  turnips,  and  radishes,  of  which  azote  is  a 
principal  constituent. 

3.  Vegetable  manures  are  useful,  on  account  of  the 
carbonic  acid  and  humic  acid  which  they  yield,  on  fer- 
mentation ;  and  also,  because,  when  applied  before  the 
straw  is  completely  decomposed,  they  serve  to  loosen  the 
soil,  and  render  it  lighter,  while  the  process  of  fermenta- 
tion, being  continued,  has  the  advantage  of  warming  the 
soil  and  thus  assisting  germination.  Much  discussion 
has  taken  place  in  connexion  with  tliis  subject. — Sir  II. 
Davy  maintaining  that  manures  ought  never  to  ferment 

*  The  use  of  bone-dust  has  effected  a  vast  and  beneficial  cliange  in 
English  husbandry.  It  is  said  to  be  adding  annually  sixteen  millions 
of  bushels  of  grain  to  the  produce  of  her  fields.  Two  bushels  of  bone- 
dust,  properly  applied,  will,  on  some  soils,  do  as  much  good  as  a 
load  of  barn-yard  manure.  Eight  hundred  thousand  dollars'  worth 
are  annually  imported  into  Great  Britain.  Bone-mills  have  recently 
been  established  near  Boston,  Providence,  New  York,  Albany,  &c., 
but  the  manure,  as  yet,  is  hardly  known  ia  the  United  States. 
10* 


1  14  AGRICULTURE. 

at  all,  before  they  are  used,  while  others,  and  especially 
practical  farmers,  have  contended,  that  rotten  dung,  or 
that  which  has  undergone  at  least  a  partial  fermenta 
tion,  is  more  valuable,  inasmuch  as  it  retains  moisture 
longer,  and  has  in  it  a  large  proportion  of  humic  acid. 
The  truth  probably  lies  partly  with  both  sides,  entirely 
with  neither.* 

In  regard  to  manures,  we  conclude  with  the  fol- 
lowing practical  observations.  ■'•  The  most  common 
manure  consists  in  a  mixture  of  animal,  vegetable,  and 
mineral,  substances,  such  as  farm-yard  litter,  night  soil, 
mud  from  the  streets,  dust  from  the  roads,  or  earth  from 
the  bottom  of  ponds  and  rivers,  abounding  with  organic 
remains  of  fish,  sliells,  and  rotten  plants.  Before  being 
laid  upon  land,  it  usually  requires  being  well  turned  up, 
and  exposed  to  the  air  for  some  time  ;  but  as  soon  as 
it  is  spread,  it  should  be  ploughed  in,  to  prevent  loss  by 
evaporation.  As  to  tlie  depth,  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  to  which  it  should  be  deposited,  it  may  be  re- 
marked, that  this  should  never  be  below  the  reach  of 
the  roots  of  the  plants  it  is  intended  to  nourish  :  for,  in 
proportion  as  it  is  dissolved  and  liquefied,  it  will  natu- 
rally descend.  And  it  is  better  to  manure  lands  in  the 
Spring  than  in  the  Autumn,  lest  the  Winter  rains 
should  dissolve  it  too  much,  and  endanger  its  sinking 
below  the  roots  of  the  crop.  With  regard  to  the  quan- 
tity of  manure,  it  is  a  commodity  so  scarce,  that  it  is 
not  likely  to  be  employed  in  excess.  This  occurs, 
however,  sometimes  in  garden-culture,  and  it  produces 
a  strong  and  disagreeable  flavor  in  the  vegetables.  But 
the  stock  of  manure  is  generally  so  limited,  that  it  has 
been  the  study  of  agriculturists  to  discover  some  means 
of  compensating  for  deficiencv.  rather  than  to  appre- 


*  The  truth  is  probably  expressed  by  General  Armstrong,  in  these 
words:  "If  we  wish  to  obtain  one.  great  crop,  the  rotted  dung  is 
best  ;  but  when  we  look  to  more  permanent  improvement,  the  long 
dung  is  to  be  preferred."  Experiments  show  that  the/jrs/  crop,  af- 
ter the  manure  is  applied,  is  largest  with  short  dung,  but  that  m  sub- 
sequent yeara  it  is  not  so  great. 


CHEMICAL  AGRICULTURE.  115 

hend  danger  from  excess.    This  compensation  has  been 
found  in  a  judicious  rotation  of  crops."* 


CHAPTER  II. 

CHEMICAL   AGRICULTURE   CONTINUED. 

Thus  far,  wc  have  considered  the  food  of  plants. 
There  are  other  important  principles,  which,  if  tiiey  do 
not  serve  as  food,  are  yet  as  useful,  by  way  of  stimu- 
lants, as  salt  is  to  us  ;  and  which,  as  chemical  agents 
for  digesting  the  food  of  plants,  are  quite  indispensable. 
These  arc.  Light,  Heat,  and  Electricity .f  How  indis- 
pensable the  lirst  two  of  these  are,  to  vegetation,  is  well 
known,  by  every  practical  cultivator.  From  light,  plants 
derive  their  green  color,  their  taste,  smell,  and  nutritive 
qualities,  as  is  apparent  from  tiie  pale  and  sickly  appear- 
ance, and  the  deficient  flavor  and  odor,  of  such  as  are 
reared  in  the  dark.  Heat,  as  every  one  knows,  is  necessa- 
ry, in  order  to  have  the  seeds  germinate,  and  to  promote 
their  rapid  and  healthy  growtli.  It  assists  the  fermenta- 
tion and  putrefaction,  by  which  the  necessary  supply  of 
carbonic  acid  gus  and  humic  acid  is  produced  ;  while, 
at  the  same  time,  it  accelerates  the  flow  of  the  sap 
through  the  vessels  of  the  plant.  Since,  in  Agriculture, 
the  light  and  heat  are  derived  from  the  sun,  the  propor- 
tion, in  which  the  soil  receives  these  principles,  will 
depend  upon  its  texture  and  upon  the  position  of  its 

*  .\mong  other  advantages  of  what  is  termed  root  cultvre,  that  is, 
the  raisin*  of  beets,  turnips,  potatoes,  &c.,  is  the  addition  which  it 
makes  to  the  manure  of  a  farm,  by  enabling  the  farmer  to  support  a 
larger  number  of  cattle.  "  It  trebles,''^  says  Duel,  "  the  amount  of 
cattle  foorf,  and  doubles  the  quantity  of  manure."  See  '  Farmer's 
Companion,'  (forming  the  sixteenth  volume  of  '  The  School  Li- 
brary,') chapter  .\vi.,  on  Root  Culture,  page  IfiS. 

t  Grapevines  in  the  south  of  Europe  are  often  furnished  with  elec- 
tric conductors.  Davy  "  found  that  corn  sprouted  more  rapidly  in 
water  positively  electrified  by  the  Voltaic  battery,  than  in  water  neg' 
atively  electrified." 


116  AGRICULTURE. 

surface.  In  our  latitude,  the  rays  of  the  sun  fall  so 
obliquely  upon  the  earth,  that  a  level  surface  will  obvi- 
ously receive  less  light,  than  if  it  were  inclined  towards 
the  sun.  When,  therefore,  early  vegetation  is  required, 
and  the  soil  is  strong  enough  to  bear  much  heat,  it  will 
be  useful  to  give  it  an  inclination  in  this  direction.  In 
light  soils,  however,  where  there  is  a  tendency  to  parch, 
for  want  of  moisture,  this  position  would  give  the  sun 
too  great  power,  and  is  therefore  to  be  avoided.  The 
texture  of  the  soil  is  broken  up  by  the  plough  and  har- 
ro\v,  and  thus  fitted  to  receive  heat  from  the  sun,  while 
it  carries  off  superfluous  moisture,  by  evaporation.  But 
it  should  be  remarked,  that  such  evaporation  abstracts 
heat  rapidly  from  the  earth,  and  thus  occasions,  in  some 
cases,  the  frosts,  from  which  crops  are  apt  to  suffer. 
Similar  frosts  are  occasioned,  also,  by  what  is  termed 
radiation ;  that  is,  by  the  passing  off  of  heat  from  the 
earth,  at  night,  owing  to  which,  it  becomes  very  cold, 
and  the  vapor  in  the  air  is  congealed.  Hence  the 
practice  of  covering  plants,  at  night,  and  the  use  of 
snow,  in  protecting  them.  These  serve  to  prevent  the 
radiation,  and  thus  keep  the  earth  at  a  temperature 
friendly  to  vegetation,  or  at  least  not  fatal  to  the  life 
of  the  plant. 

This  brief  sketch  of  the  method,  by  which  the  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  soil  may  be  maintained  and  increas- 
ed, will  be  sufficient  to  prove  the  importance  of  knowl- 
edge, and  especially  of  scientific  knowledge.  In  many 
respects,  the  farmer  may  be  regarded  as  a  chemist,  con- 
ducting experiments  on  an  extensive  scale.  Plants  are 
the  substance  with  which  he  deals,  and  the  natural 
properties  of  the  soil,  combined  with  manures,  light, 
heat,  &c.,  are  the  agents  employed.  If  he  would  em- 
ploy these  agents  successfully,  he  must  surely  under- 
stand their  nature,  and  the  mutual  influence  which  they 
exert  on  each  other.  He  must  understand,  also,  some- 
thing of  the  structure  and  functions  of  plants  ;  the  office 
performed  by  the  roots,  leaves,  bark,  &c.  &c.,  a  knowl- 


CHEMICAL  AGRICULTURE.  117 

edge  which  l)elongs  to  vegetable  physiology.  Many 
of  the  errors,  which  are  committed  in  agriculture,  would 
be  avoided,  if  the  farmer  would  consent  to  unite  a  larg- 
er portion  of  scientific  information  with  his  practical 
skill.  In  such  case,  lie  would  not  apply  the  same  ma- 
nures indiscriminately  to  all  soils.  He  would  not  sutler 
land  to  lie  waste,  which  might  easily  be  rendered  pro- 
ductive. Nor  would  he  be  content  with  a  meager  crop, 
from  soils,  whicli,  with  very  moderate  expense  and  la- 
bor, might  be  increased  in  their  fertility  fourfold. 

We  are  far  from  supposing  that  any  knowledge  of 
science  can  supersede  a  practical  acquaintance  with  the 
operations  of  a  farm.  We  would  merely  contend,  that, 
while  the  cultivator  gathers  knowledge  from  personal 
experience,  he  ought  not  to  disregard  the  light  which 
may  be  atibrded  by  the  experience  of  others,  and  by 
the  researches  of  science.  It  is  sufficient  proof  of  the 
value  of  these  researches,  that  their  authors  have  been 
the  men  who  have  suggested  the  most  important  im- 
l)rovements  in  modern  agriculture.  If  British  agri- 
culture is  now  the  admiration  of  the  world,  it  is  be- 
cause such  men  as  Davy  and  Sinclair,  Anderson  and 
Kairnes,  Young  and  Coke, — men  who  have  united  phi- 
losophical sagacity  with  patient  experiment, — have  de- 
voted their  high  powers  to  its  improvement. 

It  is  stated,  that  the  celebrated  Lavoisier,  memorable, 
alike,  for  his  scientific  genius  and  his  political  misfor- 
tunes,* cultivated  two  hundred  and  forty  acres  of  land, 
in  La  Vendee,  on  chemical  principles,  in  order  to  set  a 
good  example  to  the  farmers  ;  and  his  mode  of  culture 
was  attended  with  so  much  success,  that  he  obtained  a 

*  During  the  terrors  of  Robespierre's  reign  in  the  French  Revolution, 
Lavoisier  remarked,  that  he  foresaw  he  should  be  stripped  of  all  his 
property,  and  accordingly  would  prepare  to  enter  the  profession  of  an 
apothecary.  But  his  fate  was  already  sealed  ;  and  he  was  executed, 
in  May,  1794,  for  the  pretended  crime  of  having  adulterated  snufT 
with  ingredients  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  citizens  !  On  being 
arrested,  he  besought  that  at  least  time  should  be  allowed  him  for 
completing  some  experiments  in  which  he  was  engaged  ;  but  the  re- 
ply was,  "  the  Republic  does  not  want  savans  or  chemists,  and  the 
course  of  justice  cannot  be  suspended." 


118  AGRICULTURE. 

third  more  of  crop  than  was  produced  by  the  usual 
method  ;  and  in  nine  years,  his  annual  produce  was 
doubled.  It  is  not  to  be  questioned,  that,  were  this 
course  to  become  general,  similar  effects  would  every 
where  ensue.  It  is  not  easy  to  set  limits  to  the  produc- 
tiveness of  the  earth.  Chinese  culture  shows  that  it  may 
be  carried  far  beyond  any  point  which  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  fix,  and  it  is  probable  that  every  farmer,  if  he 
would  make  the  experiment,  might  realize  the  apologue 
of  tlie  Roman  vine-dresser. 

Having  two  daughters,  we  are  lold,  that  when  the 
oldest  was  married,  he  gave  her  a  third  of  his  vine- 
yard, for  a  portion  ;  notwithstanding  which,  he  had  the 
same  quantity  of  fruit  as  before.  When  his  youngest 
daughter  was  married,  he  gave  her  half  of  what  re- 
mained ;  and  still,  because  he  bestowed  on  the  portion 
reserved  as  much  labor  as  he  had  formerly  bestowed 
on  the  whole,  the  produce  of  his  vineyard  was  undimin- 
ished. If  this  result  was  attained,  when  cultivators 
were  ignorant  of  many  of  the  important  principles  now 
acted  upon,  what  might  we  not  expect  from  farmers, 
who,  uniting  science  with  experience,  should  confine 
their  labors  to  small  parcels  of  land  ?  We  are  aware, 
that  the  cheapness  of  land  in  this  country,  and  the 
high  price  of  labor,  may  render  it  expedient  for  the 
American  cultivator  to  deviate,  in  this  respect,  somewhat 
from  the  practice  of  older  countries.  But  we  may  still 
inquire,  whether  the  practice  of  cultivating  large  farms 
imperfectly  is  not  carried  too  far  for  the  interest  of  the 
farmer ;  and  whether,  if  he  must  own  much  land,  he 
would  not  derive  more  benefit  from  it.  by  confining  his 
operations  to  such  portions  as  he  can  afford  to  till  more 
thoroughly  and  manure  more  abundantly. 

II.  Mechanical  Agriculture. — In  performing  the 
operations  of  husbandry,  we  employ  implements,  or  ma- 
chines ;  and  it  is  interesting  to  remark  the  assistance 
which  they  have  rendered,  both  in  saving  labor  and  im- 
proving the  culture.  The  recent  and  material  improve- 
ments, which  have  been  made  in  these  machines,  both 


MECHANICAL  AGRICULTURE.  I  1  9 

as  it  respects  variety  and  construction,  ought  to  be 
an  object  of  especial  interest  to  tlie  American  farmer, 
since  the  high  price  which  labor  bears  in  this  country 
tends  very  much  to  diminish  his  profits.  It  is  not  with- 
out some  surprise,  therefore,  that  we  have  learned,  that 
sucli  improvements  are  sometimes  viewed  by  him  witii 
distrust,  and  that  machines  are  often  known  and  ex- 
tensively used  in  England,  before  they  can  secure  an 
introduction  into  tiiis  country. 

Among  the  ancient  Greeks,  as  we  learn  from  Hesiod 
and  Tiieophrastus,  the  ground  was  broken  by  a  rude 
plough  ;  seed  was  sown  by  hand,  and  covered  with  a 
rake  ;  the  grain  was  reaped  with  a  sickle,  threshed  with 
a  flail,  then  winnowed  by  wind  ;  and,  when  wanted  by 
the  family,  pounded  in  mortars  or  quern-mills,  into 
meal.  Now,  we  have  ploughs,  moved  with  less  power, 
and  yet  serving  to  turn  up  the  earth  much  more  effec- 
tually :*  the  clods  are  broken,  and  the  surface  smoothed, 
by  a  harrow,  which  has  been  recently  much  improved 
in  structure  and  efficiency.  The  seed  is  frequently 
planted  and  covered,  by  the  use  of  machines,  called 
drills,  with  more  accuracy  and  economy  than  it  could 
be  done  with  the  human  hand :  the  grain  is  reaped,  by 
an  instrument  called  a  cradle,  much  more  rapidly  than 
it  could  be  with  the  sickle  ;  and  the  reaping  machine, 
wliich  has  been  used  for  several  years,  by  the  Scottisii 
farmers,  seems  to  promise,  that  the  labor  can  be  entire- 
ly performed  by  machinery.  Having  been  reaped,  the 
grain  is  threshed  out  by  a  machine,  instead  of  the  flails 
or  the  tread  of  cattle ;  winnowed  by  fanning  mills, 
which  create  artificial  wind  for  the  purpose :  and  ground 
up  by  water  or  wind  mills,  at  an  expense  thirty  times 
less  than  would  be  incurred  by  the  use  (»f  the  ancient 
handmills. 

Our  limits  do  not  permit  us  to  trace  the  progress  of 
improvement,  in  this  branch  of  machinery,  nor  to  de- 
scribe the  construction  of  the  implements  now  in  gener- 

*  Steam-ploughs,  of  various  forms,  have  been  invented.  In  some 
cases,  the  moving  power  is  stationary  ;  in  others,  locomotive. 


120  AGRICl.'LTfRE. 

al  use.  But  we  may  remark,  that  these  inventions  have 
generally  been  made  by  men,  who,  to  a  knowledge  of 
practical  agriculture,  joined  some  acquaintance  with 
scientific  mechanics.  Their  influence  upon  the  amount 
of  grain  produced  by  cultivation  is  obvious.  If  one 
man  can  now  produce,  by  the  aid  of  machinery,  five 
times  as  much  as  was  raised  in  ancient  Greece,  it  fol- 
lows, that  the  quantity  of  food,  yielded  by  a  given 
amount  of  labor  in  a  country,  and  consequently  the 
quantity  of  artificial  comforts,  of  every  description, 
v.hich  are  enjoyed,  will  be  increased  in  the  same  pro- 
portion. In  assuming  the  increased  production,  occa- 
sioned by  machines,  to  be  fivefold,  we  believe  that  we 
have  not  exaggerated.  We  have  been  informed,  by 
very  inteUigent  cultivators,  that  the  improvements  made 
within  the  last  twenty  years,  in  the  implements  of  hus- 
bandry, have  effected  a  saving  of  more  than  half  the 
labor  necessary  on  a  farm ;  or,  w^hich  is  nearly  the 
same  thing,  have  enabled  the  farmer,  with  the  same 
manual  labor,  to  double  the  productions  of  his  estate. 
We  are  not  to  wonder,  therefore,  at  the  striking  im- 
provement which  has  takeii  place,  within  a  few  centu- 
ries, in  the  condition  of  the  cultivators  of  the  soil ;  and 
not  in  their  condition  only,  but  in  that  of  all  classes  of 
society.  Two  or  three  hundred  years  ago,  the  hus- 
bandmen of  Europe  v.ere  not  only  slaves,  bound  to  la- 
bor, for  life,  on  the  soil  where  they  first  saw  the  light, 
and  to  devote  much  of  the  proceeds  of  their  labor  to  a 
master :  but  these  proceeds,  owing  to  ignorance  of  the 
proper  principles  of  husbandry,  to  the  want  of  machines, 
and  to  the  consequent  imperfection  in  culture,  were 
wholly  inadequate  to  supply  the  necessities  of  the  peo- 
ple. Hence  the  fearful  famines,  v.hich  often  visited 
those  countries  ;  famines,  in  which  men,  women,  and 
children, perished,  by  thousands,  and  the  survivors  were 
compelled  to  subsist  for  months,  on  the  bark  of  trees, 
acorns,  and  pignuts.  Hence  the  miserable  condition, 
at  this  moment,  of  the  peasantry  in  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal, who  have  very  poor  implements,  and  hardly  any 


ARCHITECTURE.  121 

kiiQwlodge  of  agriculture.  If,  instead  of  being  sub- 
jected to  such  visitations,  England  is  now  able  to  sub- 
sist all  her  population,  a  |)opulation  tenfold  greater  than 
she  liad  at  that  period,  and  if  this  subsistence  is  in  ev- 
ery respect  more  abundant  and  refined  than  was  then 
tiiought  necessary,  it  is  to  be  attributed,  almost  entirely, 
to  the  introduction  of  better  machines  and  improved 
systems  of  culture.*  The  number  of  cultivators  has 
not  increased,  in  a  proportion  by  any  means  as  rapid 
as  the  population  ;  and  yet  that  country  presents,  at 
this  moment,  the  unexampled  spectacle,  of  a  land,  in 
uiiich  less  than  one  third  of  the  whole  population  is 
employed  in  agriculture,  and  still  the  soil  is  producing 
stores  of  vegetable  and  animal  food,  which,  if  properly 
preserved!  and  distributed,  would  afford  an  ample  and 
even  luxurious  subsistence  for  every  family. 


CHAPTER  III. 


ARCHITECTLRE. 


Next  to  Agriculture,  one  of  the  earliest  and  most 
miportant  employments  of  mankind  was  the  building 
of  edifices,  for  habitation,  worship,  and  defence.  In  no 
art  do  we  see  more  striking  evidence  of  the  various 
and  ever-progressive  powers  of  the  human  mind.  The 
insect  and  the  quadruped  erect  their  habitations  under 
the  guidance  of  a  blind  but  unerring  instinct,  and  hence 
they  are  at  all  periods  alike,  and  receive  no  improve- 

*  See  Appendix  V.,  on  Progress  of  Agriculture  in  England  and 
in  the  United  States. 

t  An  immense  amonnt  of  grain  is  wasted  annually,  in  England,  as 
in  the  United  States,  in  distilleries  and  breweries,  in  subsisting  su- 
perfluous dogs,  horses,  &c.  The  quantity  of  malt,  made  into  beer 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  in  the  year  ending  October,  1S33,  was 
40,164,792  bushels.  In  the  year  1838,  it  was  40, 505, 5G6  bushels. 
In  England  alone,  55,045^  acres  of  land  are  under  cultivation  foi 
hops  to  be  used  in  making  beer. 

11  S.  A. 


122  ARCHITECTURE. 

ment  with  the  lapse  of  time.  But  man  rears  his  edi- 
fices, by  means  of  an  intelUgence  which  is  extremely 
falUble,  but,  at  the  same  time,  ever  improving.  Hence 
his  earliest  efforts  are  rude  and  imperfect.  The  ma- 
terials are  inconvenient  and  perishable,  the  forms  un- 
graceful, and  the  structure  unstable.  But,  gathering 
wisdom  from  his  experience,  he  constantly  improves, 
till  at  lenofth  he  erects  buildings  unending  in  their  va- 
riety, beautiful  in  their  form  and  finish,  and  fitted  to 
withstand  the  violence  of  the  elements  and  the  waste 
of  time.  In  our  remarks  in  this  Chapter,  we  shall  speak 
onlv  of  Architecture  as  a  useful  art,  and  shall  endeavor 
to  illustrate  its  dependence  on,  1.  Geometry  :  '2.  Chem- 
istry;  3.  Mechanical  Philosophy. 

It  mav  add  to  the  interest  of  the  subject,  if  we  intro- 
duce some  instances  from  the  architecture  of  Nature, 
tending  to  show,  that,  in  her  work,  she  has  ever  pro- 
ceeded on  the  same  principles  which  are  slowly  discov- 
ered by  men,  and  which,  had  they  been  more  careful- 
ly observed,  might  have  suggested  improvements,  at  a 
much  earlier  period.  In  speaking  of  the  structure  of 
the  human  body,  it  has  been  declared,  by  the  most  em- 
inent anatomist  now  living,*  ••  That  the  foundation  of 
the  Eddystone  lighthouse,  the  perfection  of  human  ar- 
chitecture and  ingenuity,  is  not  formed  on  principles  so 
correct,  as  those  which  have  directed  the  arrangement 
of  the  bones  of  the  foot ;  that  the  most  perfect  pillar  or 
king-post  is  not  adapted  with  the  accuracy  of  the  hol- 
low bones  which  support  our  weight :  that  the  insertion 
of  a  ship's  mast  into  the  hull  is  a  clumsy  contrivance, 
compared  with  the  connexions  of  the  human  spine  and 
pelvis  ;  and  that  the  tendons  are  composed  in  a  manner 
superior  to  the  last  patent  cables  of  Huddart,  or  the  yet 
more  recently  improved  chain  cables  of  Bloxam." 

1.  We  are  first  to  illustrate  the  applications  of  geom- 
etry to  architecture.  When  a  builder  or  architect  pro- 
poses to  erect  an  edifice,  one  of  his  most  important  du- 
ties is,  to  calculate  the  expense,  and  make  an  estimate 

•  Sir  Charles  Bell. 


APPLICATION   OF   GEOMETRY  TO  ARCHITECTURE.    123 

of  the  amount  of  materials  and  laboi'  ichich  icill  he 
required.  Now,  in  order  to  do  this,  he  must  deduce, 
from  the  Hncar  dimensions  of  tlie  proposed  house,  what 
number  of  cubic  feet  or  yards  must  be  excavated  for 
the  cellars  ;  how  many  cubic  yards  must  be  laid  up  in 
brick  and  stone  ;  and  how  much  timber  will  be  requi- 
site, for  the  frame,  roofing,  dec.  But  these  calculations 
can  hardly  be  made,  without  some  knowledge  of  geom- 
etry ;  and  to  make  them  in  all  the  new  and  unexpected 
cases  which  may  occur,  in  the  present  state  of  the  arts, 
requires  much  more  than  a  smattering  of  the  science. 
Then,  again,  the  architect,  in  order  to  prepare  himself, 
has  often  to  draw  designs  of  the  building ;  to  exhibit 
gTound-plans  and  elevations  ;  to  determine,  by  construc- 
tion or  calculation,  the  inclination  which  must  be  given 
to  the  faces  of  stone  in  his  masonwork,  or  to  the  ex- 
tremities of  timbers  which  are  to  join  at  a  certain  angle, 
or  to  the  edge  of  covering  which  he  proposes  to  apply 
to  various  solids.  In  such  cases,  it  is  obvious,  that  his 
calculations  must  depend  upon  geometry,  and  cannot 
be  made,  in  all  cases,  with  proper  accuracy,  without 
some  knowledge  of  its  principles. 

At  other  times,  he  may  be  required  to  dispose  a  given 
quantitv  of  material  in  such  shape,  as  to  afford  the  most 
space  or  accommodation  ;  and  ag^ain,  he  may  be  requir- 
ed, having  a  certain  space,  (as  a  room.)  to  build  it  up 
with  cells  or  closets,  so  as  to  leave  no  vacant  space  :  to 
expend  the  least  possible  material,  and  yet  secure  the 
most  strength.  Now,  these  questions  can  be  answered, 
in  the  first  instance,  only  by  skilful  geometers  ;  and  the 
rules  which  they  have  discovered  cannot  be  applied, 
with  uniform  accuracy,  by  the  ignorant  and  mechani- 
cal workman.  Mathematicians  have  ascertained,  that 
in  the  former  of  these  cases,  the  sphere  is  the  figure 
which  best  answers  the  condition  :  and  that  the  nearer 
the  solid  approaches  a  sphere,  the  greater  the  space 
which  it  will  contain  within  a  given  surface,  or  with  a 
given  amount  of  materials.  They  have  ascertained, 
further,  that  to  fill  a  room  with  cells,  as  required  above, 


1-24  ARCHITECTURE. 

these  cells  must  be  constructed  with  six  sides,  and  that 
the  roof  and  floor  must  be  made  of  three  square  planes 
meeting  in  a  point ;  and  they  have  shown  yet  further, 
by  a  demonstration  belonging  to  the  highest  parts  of 
algebra,  that  there  is  one  particular  angle,  or  inclina- 
tion, of  those  planes  to  each  other,  where  they  meet, 
which  makes  a  greater  saving  of  materials  and  of  work, 
than  any  other  inclination  whatever  could  possibly  do. 
Now,  it  is  a  most  remarkable  fact,  that  bees  build,  and 
ever  have  built,  their  cells  exactly  in  this  shape,  and 
thereby  save,  in  this  operation,  both  materials  and  la- 
bor more  effectually  than  was  possible  to  man,  until 
very  lately.  And  thus  it  is,  that  truths,  which  are  found 
out  by  philosophers,  only  after  ages  of  improvement,  in 
the  most  difficult  branch  of  the  most  difficult  science  ; 
which  not  even  a  Xewton  reached  ;  (for  the  principle 
liere  referred  to  was  discovered  by  one  of  his  celebra- 
ted followers  ;)  these  truths  are  ever  present  to  the  mind 
of  that  Being,  who  guides  the  instinct  of  the  humblest 
insect,  and  suffers  not  a  sparrow  to  fall  unnoticed  to  the 
ground. 

2.  The  applications  of  chemical  science  to  architec- 
ture are  numerous  and  important.  "When  the  builder 
has  finished  his  estimates  and  drawings,  he  proceeds,  in 
the  next  place,  to  collect  his  materials.  In  doing  this, 
he  must  remember,  that  the  edifice,  whicii  he  is  about 
to  erect,  will  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  manv  natural 
laws,  which  tend  to  destroy  it.  TJie  air  contains  oxv- 
gen,  which  tends  to  destroy  metals  by  corrosion  :  to  de- 
compose rocks,  when  they  contain  either  iron  or  alka- 
line substances ;  and  to  produce  on  vegetable  substan- 
ces, gradually,  the  same  destructive  effects,  as  are  pro- 
duced rapidly  by  combustion.  "Water,  both  that  which 
circulates  through  the  earth  and  that  which  falls  from 
the  clouds,  operates  as  a  powerful  solvent,  not  only  on 
timber  exposed  to  it,  but  also  on  many  other  bodies ; 
and  especially  on  stones,  which  contain  calcareous  or 
alkaline  ingredients.  Part  of  this  efi'ect  it  owes  to  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  which,  being  mixed  both  with  water 


APPLICATION  OF   CHEMISTRY  TO  ARCHITECTURE.  Iii5 

and  the  air,  acts,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  large 
towns,  as  a  powerfnl  principle  of  decay.  In  addition 
to  these,  we  may  add  heat,  which,  though  not  perhaps 
directly  a  cause  of  decay,  becomes  so,  in  consequence 
of  tjie  frequent  changes  which  the  temperature  of  the 
atmosphere  undergoes  ;  and  also  electricity,  which  acts 
as  a  destroying  agent,  in  consequence  of  the  difterent 
electrical  states  in  which  bodies  arc  to  be  found. 

Now,  against  these  agencies,  it  is  the  business  of  the 
architect  to  guard.  His  works  derive  their  principal 
value  from  permanence.  They  are  erected,  not  for  the 
accommodation  of  an  individual  or  a  generation  ;  but 
for  the  accommodation  of  successive  individuals  and 
generations,  if  possible,  through  all  time.  Our  estima- 
tion of  his  art  never  rises  so  high,  as  when  we  look  on 
some  structure,  which,  from  its  adamantine  base,  has 
beheld  successive  generations,  as  they  have  risen  and 
disappeared  ;  when  we  see  that  his  workmanship  has 
stood  unmoved,  by  physical  vicissitudes  and  moral  revo- 
lutions, and  that,  ages  after  the  mind  which  designed 
and  the  hand  which  reared  it,  together  with  all  the  busy 
actors  of  the  same  period,  have  passed  away,  it  stands 
in  humble  imitation  of  the  works  of  God, — unbroken, 
fresh,  and  still  the  same. 

But  thus  to  guard,  in  tlie  most  cftectual  manner, 
against  the  ravages  of  time,  especially  against  those  of 
a  chemical  nature,  calls  for  some  knowledge  of  chemi- 
cal science.  This  science  teaches  the  builder  how  to 
select  his  materials,  and  where  to  dispose  of  them,  so 
that  they  shall  be  most  secure  from  the  influence  of 
decay.  It  teaches  him  what  rocks  contain  principles 
of  dissolution  ;  what  metals  are  most  liable  to  rust  or 
corrode,  and  in  what  situations  they  would  be  most  se- 
cure from  this  change  ;  of  wjiat  ingredients  his  brick  or 
tile  should  be  composed,  and  at  what  temperature  they 
should  be  burnt,  in  order  to  render  tiiem  most  durable 
and  useful ;  what  causes  tend  to  destroy  vegetable  sub- 
stances, how  far  these  causes  can  be  guarded  against 
by  seasoning,  chaiTing,  covering  ivith  paint  or  resin- 
11* 


126  ARCHITECTL'RE. 

ous  siihstances.impi'egnciting  with  salt  or  oil, provid- 
ing a  circulation  of  dry  air,  d:c.  S^c. 

A  vast  expense  is  every  year  created,  by  the  prema- 
ture decay  of  wood  employed  in  ships  and  other  struc- 
tures which  are  exposed  to  the  vicissitudes  of  weather, 
and  especially  if  they  are  subjected  to  the  influence 
of  warmth  combined  with  moisture.  Though  trees  of 
different  species  vary  greatly,  in  the  durability  of  their 
wood,  vet  none  of  the  species  commonly  employed  are 
capable  of  withstanding,  for  many  years,  the  effect  of 
unfavorable  exposures.  In  addition  to  superficial  de- 
cay, they  are  subject  to  a  disease  called  dry-rot,  which 
commences  in  the  interior  substance  of  the  wood,  and, 
instead  of  being  retarded  by  paint  or  the  other  means 
of  preservation  usually  employed,  is  rather  accelerated  ; 
since  these  substances  have  the  effect  of  closing  up  the 
pores  of  the  wood,  and  preventing  the  escape  of  the 
unhealthy  exhalations.  How  to  guard  against  this  dis- 
ease has  become  a  most  important  question,  and  one 
which  will  be  answered  only  by  persons  well  acquaint- 
ed with  the  chemical  construction,  both  of  vegetable 
substances  and  of  the  agencies  which  cause  them  to 
decay. 

Another  occasion,  which  calls  for  chemical  knowl- 
edge, is  the  composition  and  application  of  the  various 
cements.  It  is  well  known,  tiiat  these  important  sub- 
stances must  be  compounded  differently,  according  as 
they  are  the  uniting  medium  between  bricks  and  stones, 
or  between  vegetable  or  animal  substances  ;  and  also  as 
they  are  immersed  in  water  or  exposed  to  the  action  of 
the  air.  Respecting  their  composition,  in  these  differ- 
ent cases,  much  must  unquestionably  be  learned  from 
experience.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  their  action  is 
to  be  referred  to  chemical  laws,  and  that  the  man  who 
understands  these  laws  must,  other  tilings  being  equal, 
have  superior  skill  in  selecting  the  ingredients,  in  blend- 
mg  them  together,  and  in  providing  against  any  new 
emergencies  which  mav  occur. 


MECHANICAL   PHILOSOPHY.  127 

3.  We  come  now  to  consider  the  dependence  of 
Architecture  on  mechariical  philosophy. 

Tlic  design  of  an  edifice  may  be  perfect ;  the  esti- 
mates and  plans  may  be  drawn  with  tlie  utmost  accu- 
racy ;  and  the  materials  collected  may  be  of  the  most 
durable  kind  :  and  still,  unless  the  masonry  and  the 
carpentry  are  executed  according  to  nice  mechanical 
princi|)les,  the  edifice  may  of  itself  tumble  into  ruins. 
Gravitation  is  a  great  law  of  Nature,  which  may  con- 
tribute, according  as  a  building  's  constructed,  to  its 
stability  and  permanence  or  to  its  dilapidation.  To 
render  it  firm,  the  centre  of  gra/ity  of  the  mass  must 
be  directly  over  the  base  ;  and  hence  the  necessity  of 
upright  pillars  and  columns,  and  of  a  limited  height. 
The  weight  of  the  superstructure  must  be  supported  by 
a  sufficient  foundation,  and  points  in  the  building,  at 
which  there  is  a  great  stress  or  strain,  must  be  propor- 
tionally strengthened.  Timbers,  which  are  to  support 
weight,  such  as  the  girders  of  a  floor,  <fcc.,  must  be  so 
constructed,  that  they  shall  present  the  necessary  sup- 
port with  the  least  possible  material.  Arches  are  to  be 
secured  at  the  points  where  the  pressure  accumulates, 
and  composed  of  materials  not  likely  to  crush  or  yield 
under  great  weight. 

It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  architect  should  be 
able  to  foresee  what  pressure  will  fall  upon  his  founda- 
tion ;  to  what  degree  of  strain  or  stress  the  different  parts 
of  the  superstructure  will  be  subject ;  at  what  points  this 
strain  will  accumulate,  and  by  what  materials,  and  by 
what  shape,  and  what  disposition  of  them,  it  can  be  re- 
sisted. We  can  hardly  hear  these  questions,  without 
perceiving  that  they  involve  very  numerous  and  ditlicult 
principles,  to  ascertain  which  has  exercised  the  inge- 
nuity and  science  of  the  profoundest  mathematicians, 
as  well  as  of  the  n)0st  accurate  experimentalists.  Our 
limits  do  not  allow  us  to  multiply  illustrations  ;  but  we 
should  do  injustice  to  the  subject,  if  we  did  not  briefly 
refer  to  some  of  the  discoveries  which  have  been  made 
respecting  the  arch,  the  proper  form  and  adjustment 


128  ARCHITECTURE. 

of  columns  intended  for  support,  and  the  limit  ichich 
has  been  fixed,  by  the  laws  of  Nature,  to  the  magni- 
tude of  edifices,  and  to  that  of  their  several  parts. 
This  will  atibrd  us  an  opportunity  of  showing,  from  the 
architecture  of  the  human  body,  that  the  finest  efforts 
of  human  skill  are  but  humble  copies  of  that  of  the 
Creator. 


CHAPTER  IV 


ARCHITECTURE   CONTINUED. 


(rt.)  The  arch  was  unknown  in  the  architecture  ol 
the  Egyptians*  and  Persians,  and  probably  in  that  of 
the  Greeks.  We  first  meet  with  it  in  the  structures  of 
the  Romans,  by  whom  it  was  employed  in  bridges  and 
triumphal  edifices,  though  not  v.ith  much  skill,  yet  on 
a  magnificent  scale.  We  shall  understand  the  princi- 
ple of  the  arch,  if  we  conceive  a  number  of  pieces  of 
stone  or  brick,  shaped  like  obtruncated  wedges,  (that 
is,  not  sharp.)  joined  together  by  their  faces,  and  all 
pointing  downwards.  They  must  evidently  form  a 
curved  mass,  which,  if  supported  at  the  extremities, 
will  not  only  stand,  but  will  be  rendered  more  firm  by 
any  weight  pressing  upon  its  top,  since  this  weight  is 
made  to  compress  all  the  parts  at  once,  and  nearly  in 
the  same  degree.  The  supports  on  which  an  arch 
rests  are  called  jners,  or  abutments.  The  whole  pres- 
sure evidently  centres  at  these  points,  tending  not  so 
much  to  sink  the  abutments,  as  to  spread  them  apart. 
Hence  the  care  with  which  the  abutment  is  secured, 
by  anchoring  it  deep  in  the  earth,  or  loading  it  with 

*  It  is  maintained,  by  some,  that  tlie  arch  must  have  been  knowt 
to  the  Egyptians  at  a  very  early  period,  since  it  is  found  among  tho 
ruins  of  Thebes,  &,c.  It  is  doubtful  whether,  in  the  instances  refer- 
red to,  the  structures  are  very  ancient.  The  arch  seems  to  have 
been  an  Etruscan  invention,  and  to  have  been  employed  in  the  Clo- 
aca Jifaxima  at  Rome,  as  early,  many  suppose,  as  the  time  of  the 
Tarquins. 


ARCH,  129 

heavy  weights.  While  it  retains  its  place,  any  pres- 
sure, applied  downwards,  at  the  top  of  the  arch,  or 
even  on  its  sides,  if  it  be  of  the  proper  form,  will  only 
tend  to  bind  the  stones,  which  compose  it,  more  close- 
ly together.  The  advantage  which  the  arch  has,  for 
resisting  pressure,  may  be  seen  in  the  common  watch- 
glass  face,  which,  if  plane,  would  evidently  be  very  lia- 
ble to  break  ;  also,  in  the  superior  strength  of  the  round 
junk  bottle,  as  compared  with  those  which  have  flat 
sides  and  square  bottoms  ;  and  above  all,  in  the  impos- 
sibility of  breaking  an  egg,  by  pressing  it  endwise  be- 
tween our  hands. 

Now,  it  is  a  striking  fact,  that  those  parts  in  the  hu- 
man body,  which  are  most  liable  to  pressure,  are  con- 
structed on  the  principle  of  the  arch.     The  foot.  Fig.  36, 


lOr  example,  which  is  required  to  give  a  firm  and  un- 
yielding support  to  the  body,  is  composed  of  three 
arches ;  one  extending  from  the  heel  to  the  toe,  and 
resisting  pressure  in  that  or  the  opposite  direction ; 
Another  across  the  foot,  and  another  horizontally,  or, 
as  it  were,  around  from  the  ball  of  the  foot  to  the  heel. 
These  arches  are  composed  of  bones,  wedged  together 
like  the  courses  of  stone  in  masonry,  which,  though 
movable  in  some  positions  of  the  foot,  become  perfectly 
immovable,  when  the  weight  of  the  body  bears  directly 
over  it,  and  when,  of  course,  a  firm  foundation  is  most 
needed. 

So,  again,  the  skull,  Fig.  37, — which  is  peculiarly  ex- 
posed to  injury,  from  falls,  blows,  dec,  and  which,  at 
the  same  time,  covers  the  most  important  organ  of  the 
body, — -forms  an  arch,  or,  what  is  essentially  the  same, 


130 


ARCHITECTURE. 


A,  xhe  parielctl  bone. 

B,  ihe  frontal  bone. 

C,  the  occipital  bone. 

D,  the  temporal  bone. 

E,  the  sphenoid  bone. 

a  dome.     The  two  parietal  bones,  as  they  are  called, 
which  form  the  sides  of  the  skull..  Fig.  33,  rest  against 

Fig.  35. 


each  other,  at  the  top  of  the  head,  and  form  an  arch. 
This  arch  lies,  at  its  extremities,  on  two  bones,  call- 
ed temporal  bones,  which  answer  as  abutments :  and 
it  is  most  interesting  to  observe  the  provisions  made  to 
prevent  the  spreading  of  this  arch,  which  would  result 
from  a  load  or  pressure  being  laid  upon  the  top  of  the 
head.     In  the  first  place,"ihe  lower  or  temporal  bone 


COLUMN'S.  131 

laps  over  the  parietal,  so  that  the  latter  cannot  be  thrust 
out  horizontally,  without  breaking  it ;  a  contrivance  sim- 
ilar to  the  pinnacles  and  buttresses  in  Gothic  architec- 
ture. In  the  second  place,  a  bone,  called  the  sphenoid 
bone,  supporting  the  two  temporal  bones,  passes  across 
the  head,  from  side  to  side,  just  as,  in  the  roof  of  a 
house,  the  tie-beam  is  used,  to  prevent  the  rafters  from 
spreading  the  walls  ;  or  as,  during  the  construction  of  an 
arch,  the  straining-piece  is  used,  to  prevent  the  sides  of 
the  arch  from  being  crushed  in.  It  is  worthy  of  obser- 
vation, too,  that  those  parts  of  the  head,  which  would 
strike  upon  the  ground  when  a  man  falls,  namely,  the 
centre  of  the  forehead,  the  projecting  point  of  the  skull 
behind,  and  the  lateral  centres  of  the  parietal  and  fron- 
tal bones,  are  strengthened,  just  as  we  strengthen  those 
joints  in  an  arch,  which  are  exposed  to  the  most  pres- 
sure ;  that  is,  by  increasing  their  convexity  and  thick- 
ness, and  also  by  ridges  of  bone  on  the  inside,  which 
correspond  with  braces  used  by  carpenters  at  the  an- 
gles in  the  centring  of  a  bridge,  or  the  frame  of  a  roof. 
(b.)  We  proceed  to  notice  one  or  two  of  the  princi- 
ples which  regulate  the  use  of  columns  in  architecture. 
Perhaps  the  most  curious  is  that  discovered,  I  believe, 
by  Galileo,  which  teaclies,  that,  if  a  given  amount  of 
material  is  to  be  made  into  a  column  of  given  length,  it 
will  be  strongest  when  it  takes  the  shape  of  a  hollow 
cvlinder.  The  advantage  which  this  form  has,  in  re- 
sisting pressure,  is  twofold :  first,  a  small  quantity  of 
matter,  when  employed  as  a  column,  for  support,  is  not 
so  likely  to  bend,  if  arranged  in  a  hollow  cylinder,  as 
if  it  were  condensed  into  a  solid  one,  of  much  smaller 
diameter.  Secondly :  it  is,  under  the  same  circum- 
stances, less  likely  to  break.  To  illustrate  this  :  when 
a  column,  or  other  piece  of  timber,  bends,  and  bi'eaks, 
it  is  evident,  that  a  twofold  effect  is  produced.  On  the 
one  side,  the  particles  are  crushed  into  one  another; 
and,  on  the  other,  they  are  torn  asunder,  like  the  snap- 
ping of  a  rope :  so  that,  betwixt  the  portions  acting  in 
a  manner  so  different,  there  is  an  intermediate  neutral 


132 


ARCHITECTURE. 


part,  which  might  be  taken  away  without  materially 
weakening  the  column.  Accordingly,  it  has  been 
found,  by  experiment,  that  hollow  shafts,  in  machinerj', 
are  nearly  as  strong,  as  though  they  were  made  solid, 
and  of  the  same  diameter ;  and  much  stronger,  than  if 
the  same  amount  of  material  had  been  put  into  a  solid 
form,  with  a  much  smaller  diameter :  and  hence,  also, 
the  hollow  columns,  masts,  &c.,  which  are  now  used 
in  buildings  and  in  ships. 

In  forming  the  bones  of  the  human  body,  the  Creator 
has  proceeded  upon  the  same  principle.  Finding  it 
necessary  to  combine  strength  with  lightness,  he  has 
made  these  bones,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  form  of 
hollow  cylinders  filled  up  with  the  thin  substance  called 
marrow.      Fig.  39.      Wherever  increased   strength   is 

Fig.  39.  Tig.  40. 

A 


A ,  the  spine,  or  ridge, 
running  along  the  bone, 
BC. 


necessary,  he  has  attained  it,  by  furnishing  ligaments 
to  one  side  of  the  bone  to  make  it  more  tough,  and  a 
hard  ridge,  or  spine,  to  the  other  side,  to  make  it  more  ca- 
pable of  resisting  compression.     Fig.  40.     Indeed,  there 


L,I3IIT  OF   MAGNITUDE.  133 

are  a  thousand  objects,  such  as  quills,  reeds,  the  glasses, 
etc.,  which  show  that  strength  is  uniformly  given,  by 
Nature,  with  the  least  possible  expense  of  materials.  It 
was  this  fact  to  which  Galileo  appealed,  when  he  was 
arraigned  before  the  Ino,uisition  on  the  charge  of  athe- 
ism. Being  asked,  if  he  believed  in  a  God,  he  picked 
up  a  straw,  which  had  stuck  to  his  garments.  If,  said 
he,  there  was  nothing  else  in  Nature,  to  teach  me  the 
existence  of  a  Deity,  even  this  straw  would  be  sufficient. 
Such  a  straw,  if  made  solid,  and  yet  of  the  same  quan- 
tity of  material,  would  be  so  thin,  that  it  would  bend 
and  break  under  the  slightest  weight;  whereas,  in  its 
present  form,  it  is  able  to  support  an  car,  which  is  heav- 
ier than  the  wiiole  stalk. 

(c.)  Another  important  principle,  first  noticed  by 
Galileo,  respects  the  limit  which  must  be  set  to  the 
magnitude  of  works  in  art.  It  may  be  illustrated  in 
this  manner.  A  soft  stone,  projecting  from  a  wall,  may 
make  a  stile  strong  enough  to  support  a  person's  weight ; 
but  if  it  were  necessary  to  double  its  length,  the  thick- 
ness must  be  more  than  double,  or  a  freestone  substi- 
tuted :  and  if  it  were  necessary  to  make  this  freestone 
project  twice  as  far  from  the  wall,  even  if  doubled  in 
tnickness,  it  would  not  be  strong  enough  to  bear  a  pro- 
portioned increase  of  weight.  Granite  must  be  placed 
in  its  stead,  and  even  the  granite  would  not  be  capable 
of  sustaining  four  times  the  weight  which  the  soft  stone 
bore  in  the  first  instance.*  In  the  same  way,  the  stones 
which  form  an  arch  of  a  large  span  must  be  made  of 
the  hardest  granite ;  else  their  own  weight  would  crush 
them.  The  same  principle  is  applicable  to  the  bones 
of  animals.  The  material  of  bone  is  too  soft,  to  admit 
an  indefinite  increase  of  weight.  And  generally,  we 
may  conclude  that  greater  beams  and  bars,  in  carpentry, 
must  be  in  greater  danger  of  breaking,  than  smaller 
ones ;  and  that  what  appears  very  firm,  in  a  model,  may 
he  very  weak,  or  even  fall  to  pieces  by  its  own  weight, 

*  See  Sir  C.  Bell,  on  Animal  Mechanics. 

15  S.   A. 


134  ARCHITECTURE. 

when  it  comes  to  be  executed  in  larger  dimensions,  ac- 
cording to  that  model.  Hence  it  follows,  that  ships, 
temples,  &,c.,  of  vast  magnitude,  cannot  be  erected, 
since  the  parts  of  their  frame  would  necessarily  fall 
asunder  by  their  own  weight.  In  like  manner,  if  trees 
were  of  enormous  magnitude,  their  brandies  would  fall 
off.*  and  animals,  of  magnitude  much  greater  than  any 
we  now  know,  would  be  unable  to  sustain  their  own 
weight.  As  to  marine  animals,  the  case  is  different, 
since  they  are  sustained,  chiefly,  by  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  water,  and  are.  in  fact,  known  to  be  sometimes 
vastly  larger  than  the  greatest  land  animals. 

In  speaking  of  the  application  of  mechanical  science 
to  architecture,  we  should  not  omit  the  machines  which 
are  used  in  preparing  materials  and  depositing  them  in 
their  proper  positions.  In  the  infancy  of  society,  this 
is  accomplished  by  the  rudest  instruments,  and  almost 
entirely  by  the  exertion  of  human  strength.  For  ex- 
ample :  the  people  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  when  first  vis- 
ited by  the  Spaniards,  had  neither  carts,  sledges,  nor 
beasts  of  burden  ;  but  transported  all  their  materials 
by  mere  manual  labor.  They  knew  nothing  of  scaf- 
folds, cranes,  or  other  machines,  now  used  in  erecting 
buildings ;  and  were  even  ignorant  of  the  use  of  iron. 
And  yet,  with  no  means  of  breaking  their  stones,  but 
Avith  flints,  nor  of  polishing  them,  but  by  rubbing  them 
against  each  other,  they  raised  structures,  which  are 
beheld  with  admiration  at  the  present  day,  and  which 
nearly  rival  the  greatest  edifices  of  ancient  India  or 
Egypt.  It  is  probable,  that  these  last  were  erected  in 
nearly  the  same  manner.  An  ancient  historian  states, 
»hat  the  mere  labor  of  raising  from  the  ground  the 
atones  which   compose   the  great  pyramid   in   Egypt, 

*  The  architecture  of  trees  exhibits  an  application  of  mechanical 
principles  hardly  less  wonderful  than  that  exhibited  by  the  human 
body.  The  gradual  enlargement  of  the  trunk,  as  the  tree  gains  ele- 
vation, its  greater  diameter  at  the  base  or  tapering  form,  the  tapering 
of  the  branches,  the  roundness  of  the  stem,  &,c.,  all  show  that  it 
*akes  precisely  that  form  which  best  fits  it  for  resisting  the  natural 
forces  at  war  with  it. 


MACHINES  TO  MOVE  MATERIALS.         135 

nnd  fastening  them  in  their  proper  places,  occupied 
one  liundred  thousand  men  for  twenty  years,  (and  this 
number  was  exclusive  of  those  who  were  employed  in 
hewing  and  transporting.)  It  has  been  calculated, 
that  the  same  labor  might  be  performed  by  thirty-six 
thousand  men,  using  the  steam-engines  of  England, 
in  a  single  day.  It  would  seem  to  be  evident,  from 
this  fact,  (if  it  can  be  relied  on.)  that  the  building  arts 
in  Egypt  must  have  been  in  their  infancy,  and  that 
every  thing  was  accomplished  by  main  strength.  In- 
deed, we  arc  assured  by  the  same  historian,  that  these 
pyramids  were  formed  of  different  bodies  or  stages, 
rising  one  above  another,  like  stairs ;  and  that  stones 
were  raised  from  one  to  another  step  by  means  of  the 
simplest  lever.  He  adds,  that  over  these  they  laid  a 
covering  of  masonry,  making  a  plane  surface,  by  be- 
ginning at  the  summit  and  working  downwards.  A 
similar  method  seems  to  have  been  pursued,  in  build- 
ing the  great  temple  at  Mexico,  and  the  vast  pyramids, 
remains  of  which  are  to  be  found  in  various  parts  of 
South  America. 

In  this  age,  masses  of  stone,  which  could  not  be  sep- 
arated from  the  quarries,  without  the  strength  of  one 
hundred  men,  are  broken  off,  by  a  few  pounds  of  pow- 
der. They  are  split  into  the  requisite  size  and  form, 
with  the  utmost  regularity,  by  employing  the  expansive 
power  of  heat  and  of  moisture :  they  are  brought  from 
their  bed  in  the  quarry  or  valley,  with  sixty  fold  less 
labor,  than  if  no  contrivance  were  used  for  diminishing 
friction :  they  are  transported  from  place  to  place,  on 
rivers,  canals,  and  rail-roads,  with  a  still  greater  gain 
of  power ;  and  then  they  can  be  raised  to  tiieir  places, 
by  the  power  of  steam  or  animals, — we  had  almost  said, 
without  the  intervention  of  man.  In  truth,  his  labor 
is  almost  reduced  to  the  mere  mental  effort  of  super- 
intending and  directing  the  operation  of  mechanical 
powers.     • 

Much  of  this  improvement  in  the  art  of  building 
has  been  the  result  of  corresponding  improvement  in 


136  ARCHITECTURE. 

mechanical  science.  The  effect  which  it  has  produc- 
ed on  society,  not  only  in  saving  labor,  but  in  mulli 
plying  comforts,  is  wonderful.  When  instruments  are 
rude,  and  knowledge  imperfect,  few  edifices  can  be 
reared  ;  and  these  few  must  be  comparatively  rough 
and  uncomfortable.  The  rich  and  powerful,  it  is  true, 
"as  they  can  command  human  labor,  may  build  their 
palaces  of  splendor  and  luxury.  But  they  are  built 
by  a  people,  subsisting,  like  the  ancient  laborers  in 
Egypt,  on  the  poorest  fare,  and  having  only  huts  to 
cover  tliem.  It  is  stated,  that,  in  one  uncivilized 
coimtry,  which  contains  as  many  inhabitants  as  the 
island  of  Great  Britain,  there  are  but  ten  thousand 
houses,  while  the  latter  island  contains  two  hundred 
and  fifty  times  that  number:  and  also  that  the  finest 
house  of  the  barbarians  is  vastly  less  commodious, 
than  the  poorest  dwelling  in  England.  The  reason 
is  obvious.  The  people  of  that  country  have  neither 
machinery  nor  skill.  Houses,  therefore,  can  only  be 
erected  with  great  labor  and  expense,  and  in  a  very 
rude  way.  Consider  what  a  quantity  of  waste,  both 
of  time  and  materials,  is  saved,  and  what  regularity 
of  form  is  secured,  by  a  carpenter's  tools.  With  his 
foot-rule  and  chalk-line,  he  measures  off  exactly  as 
much  wood  as  he  needs  :  with  his  saw  he  cuts  out, 
with  the  utmost  precision,  in  a  few  minutes,  a  pattern, 
which  with  a  knife  he  could  not  extract  in  a  whole 
day ;  nor  then,  without  great  waste.  His  hatchet, 
planes,  centre^bits,  dec.  etc.,  are  all  so  many  machines, 
to  reduce  labor,  save  material,  and  insure  accuracy: 
and  thus  it  becomes  possible  for  the  humblest  individ- 
ual to  have  the  shelter  of  a  comfortable  dwelling,  and 
to  have  it  provided  with  decent  and  even  ornamental 
furniture. 

Compare  the  dwelling?,  even  in  considerable  towns 
in  England,  down  to  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  with  those 
found  in  the  same  towns,  at  the  present  day.  The 
greater  part  of  the  houses  had  no  chimneys ;  the  fire 
was  kindled  against  the  v/all.  and  the  smoke  found  its 


MANUFACTURE  OF  CLOTH,  PAPER,  ETC.      137 

way  out,  as  well  as  it  could,  by  the  roof,  the  door,  or 
the  windows.  The  houses  were  mostly  built  of  wat- 
tling, plastered  over  wit!i  clay  ;  the  floors  were  of  earth, 
strowed,  in  families  of  distinction,  with  rushes.  The 
beds  were  only  straw  pallets,  with  a  log  of  wood  for  a 
pillow.  In  this  respect,  even  the  king  was  no  better  off' 
than  his  subjects  ;  for,  in  the  time  of  Henry  the  Eighth, 
we  find  directions,  '•  to  examine,  every  night,  the  st7'aw 
of  the  king's  bed,  that  no  daggers  might  be  concealed 
therein."*  In  the  discourse  prefixed  to  Hollingshed's 
Chronicle,  published  in  1577,  the  writer,  speaking  of 
the  progress  of  luxury,  mentions  three  things,  espe- 
cially, that  were  marvellously  altered  for  the  tcorse 
in  England  : — the  multitude  of  chimneys  lately  erect- 
ed ;  the  great  increase  of  lodgings;  and  the  exchange 
of  treene-platters  into  pewter,  and  wooden  spoons  into 
silver  and  tin  ;  and  he  complains  bitterly  that  nothing 
but  oak,  for  building  houses,  was  then  regarded  :  •'•  for 
when  our  houses,'"'  says  he,  '•  were  built  of  willow,  then 
we  had  oaken  men ;  but  now  that  our  houses  are  come 
to  be  made  of  oak,  our  men  are  not  only  become  wil- 
low, but  a  great  many  altogether  straw,  which  is  a  sore 
alteration." 


CHAPTER  V. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  CLOTH,   TAPER,   ETC. 

This  forms  one  the  most  interesting  as  well  as  im- 
portant branches  of  the  arts.  To  convert  the  short 
and  weak  fibres  of  wool,  cotton,  &c.,  into  strong  and 
flexible  textures,  adapted  to  a  great  variety  of  purposes, 
might  seem  to  be  the  highest  etibrt  of  human  ingenuity. 
And  yet  it  is  an  eftbrt,  which,  under  the  pressure  of 
necessity,  is  made  at  the  earliest  periods  of  civilization. 
Animals  have  been  provided  by  their  Creator  with  a 
covering  suited  to  the  zones  in  which  they  dwell.  But 
man,  the   universal   denizen,  the   inhabitant  of  every 

♦  Tlie  above  statements  are  made  on  the  authority  i>(  Hcek.T.an  (Hist,  fif  Inveniions). 
-Lafpr  aiilhoritif*  would  lead  us  to  qupslion  tlieir  cnr:r»  arcnrary. — Spo  F»<i!«rnl;ft*s 
ADtiquiH'"' 


138      MAN'UFACTCRE  OF  CLOTH.  PAPER,  ETC. 

zone,  has  been  left  to  supply  this  ever-varying  want,  by 
the  efforts  of  his  own  industry  and  skill.  At  first,  he 
may  be  satisfied  to  clothe  himself  in  the  skins  which 
he  has  taken  from  the  animals  destroyed  in  the  chase. 
Choice,  however,  soon  conspires  with  necessity,  in 
prompting  him  to  seek  a  more  convenient,  comely,  and 
salubrious  covering.  Hence  we  find,  in  the  earliest 
records  of  human  history,  notices  of  '•  fine  linen  ;"  and 
there  is  little  doubt,  that  both  cotton  and  wool  were 
manufactured,  the  former  in  India  and  the  latter  in 
Greece,  at  very  remote  periods  of  their  history.  At 
such  time?,  patient  industry,  joined  with  manual  skill, 
succeeds,  though  destitute  of  science,  in  accomplish- 
ing, with  considerable  accuracy,  complicated  processes, 
which  are  now  executed  with  yet  greater  perfection, 
and  almost  entirely  by  machinery.  It  will  be  our  ob- 
ject, in  treating  of  this  subject,  to  explain  the  princi- 
ples'on  which  the  manufacture  of  cloth,  paper,  &c.,  de- 
pends, and  to  show  its  connexion  (as  conducted  at  pres- 
ent) with  mechanics  and  chemistry. 

I.  The  constituent  fibres  of  cloth,  paper,  &c.,  are 
held  together,  principally,  by  friction  and  adhesion 
among  themselves.  The  efforts  of  the  manufacturer 
are  directed  to  interweaving  or  intermixing  them  so  to- 
gether, that  any  force  which  is  applied  will  tend,  as  in 
the  arch,  rather  to  bind  them  together  than  to  separate 
them.  This  is  accomplished,  in  different  ways,  accord- 
ing to  the  material  which  we  use,  and  the  purpose  to 
which  the  fabric  is  to  be  applied.  If  we  would  manu- 
facture cloth,  we  commence  by  twisting  the  fibres  to- 
gether into  small  threads,  and  then  we  unite  these 
threads  into  a  continuous  texture,  by  weaving.  If  it 
be  our  object  to  make  cordage,  or  ropes,  the  threads 
are  united,  not  by  weaving,  but  by  twisting  alone  ;  and 
finally,  if  we  propose  to  make  paper,  or  the  felt  for 
hats,  the  fibres,  instead  of  being  twisted,  are  united 
principally  by  pressure. 

Previous  to  being  united,  the  fibres  are  in  all  cases 
subjected  to  a  treatment,  which  is  calculated  to  render 


TWISTING. WEAVING.  139 

them  more  flexible,  even,  and  uniform.  Thus,  ^aa:  is 
broken  and  hatcheled,  in  order  to  exclude  the  husk  and 
coarse  fibres,  and  to  render  the  remainder  even  and 
pliable :  cotton  is  picked  and  carded  :  ivool  is  either 
carded  or  combed,  according  as  its  fibres  are  shorter  or 
longer,  and  then  oiled,  to  enable  these  fibres  to  move 
freely  upon  each  other,  during  the  process  of  spinning 
and  weaving :  furs,  and  other  materials  for  felting,  are 
intimately  mixed  together,  by  bowing  :*  and  the  rags, 
from  which  paper  is  generally  made,  are  minutely  sub- 
divided by  cutters,  and  immersed  in  water,  till  they 
form  a  thin,  uniform  j)ulp. 

The  most  common  mode  of  uniting  flexible  fibres  is 
by  twisting  ;  and  as  this  is  never  eflfectcd  without  some 
machine,  we  shall  have  occasion  to  describe  it  more 
particularly,  when  we  come  to  speak  of  spinning  by 
machinery.  Weaving  is  a  more  complicated  process. 
Threads  are  arranged  longitudina-lly  and  parallel  to 
each  other,  which  are  called  the  icarp,  and  these  are 
crossed  at  right  angles  by  another  thread,  called  the 
ivoof,  ive/t,  or  filling,  which,  in  common  weaving, 
passes  alternately  over  and  under  the  threads  of  the 
warp.  In  twilled  goods,  however,  it  crosses  only  at 
tlie  third,  fourth,  fifth,  or  sixth,  threads  ;  and,  when  great 
fineness  is  wanted,  only,  in  some  cases,  at  the  sixteenth. 
In  weaving  gauze,  the  threads  of  the  warp,  instead  of 
remaining  parallel,  are  crossed,  and  partially  twisted  to 
the  right  and  left,  alternately,  at  each  stroke  of  the 
loom.  In  lace,  the  threads  of  the  loeft,  instead  of 
moving  at  right  angles  to  the  ivarp,  are  made  to  pass 
in  cross  directions,'  and  obliquely  round  the  warp 
threads,  so  as  to  produce  the  hexagonal  meshes,  which 
distinguish  this  kind  of  fabric.  In  velvet,  plush,  and 
corduroy,  as  also  in  Brussels  and  Turkey  carpets,  the 
threads  are  drawn  up  in  loops,  which  are  cut  open,  and 

*  Tliis  depends  on  the  viliration  of  an  clastic  spring,  whicli,  mov- 
ing rapidly  backwards  and  forwards  tlirougli  the  fur,  is  well  calculat- 
ed to  reniove  all  irregularities,  and  dispose  theni  in  a  light  and  uni- 
'brm  arransrenient. 


140  MiNTTACTURE   OF   CLOTH.   PAPER.   ETC. 

thus  form  a  soft  uniform  nap.  In  Kidderminster  cay- 
pets,  Marseilles  quilts,  dec.,  there  are  two  webs,  each 
consisting  of  a  separate  warp  and  a  separate  woof, 
which  intersect  each  other  at  intervals,  so  as  to  pro- 
duce a  definite  figure.  It  should  also  be  added,  that 
the  warp  and  weft  are  not  always  of  the  same  material ; 
linen,  cotton,  &c.,  being  often  used  as  a  filling,  for 
woollen ;  and  there  are  other  cases,  as  in  the  Turkey 
carpet  and  in  tapestry,  where  both  are  of  linen,  and  are 
yet  concealed  by  the  wool,  which  is  introduced  to  pro- 
duce the  figures,  and  give  to  the  fabric  its  fine  and  or- 
namented surface. 

When  the  web  has  been  woven,  it  needs,  in  many 
cases,  some  additional  process,  in  order  to  fit  it  for  con- 
venient use.  Thus,  cotton,  when  taken  from  the  loom, 
is  covered  with  rough  down,  formed  by  the  projecting 
ends  of  the  fibres,  which  is  generally  removed  by  burn- 
ing,-^the  heat  being  applied  and  withdrawn  so  rapidly, 
as  not  to  injure  the  texture  of  the  cloth.  Woollens  re- 
quire to  be  scoured,  in  order  to  remove  the  oily  matter 
previously  applied  ;  and  to  restore  roughness  to  the 
fibres  ;  and,  if  composed  of  short  wool,  the  web  is  found 
so  loose  and  open,  that  it  must  be  submitted  to  another 
operation,  called  yt«//i*/2^.  This  is  performed  by  a  full- 
ingmill,  in  which  the  cloth  is  immersed  in  water,  and 
subjected  to  repeated  compressions,  by  the  action  of 
large  beaters  formed  of  wood,  wjiich  repeatedly  change 
the  position  of  the  cloth,  and  cause  the  fibres  to  felt, 
and  co.mbine  more  closely  together.  By  this  process, 
the  cloth  is  reduced  in  its  dimensions,  and  the  beauty 
and  stability  of  the  texture  are  areatly  improved.  The 
tendency  to  become  thickened,  by  fulling,  is  peculiar  to 
vrool  and  hair,  and  does  not  exist  in  the  fibres  of  cot- 
ton and  flax.  It  depends  on  a  certain  roughness  of 
these  animal  fibres,  which  permits  motion  in  one  di- 
rection, while  it  retards  it  in  another.  It  thus  pro- 
motes entanglement  of  the  fibres,  which  serves  to  short- 
en and  thicken  the  vroven  fabric. 

The  nap.  or  downy  surface  of  broadcloth,  and  also 


MANLFACTLRE  OF    MUSLIN  IX  INDIA.  141 

of  liats,  is  raised  by  a  process,  whicli,  while  it  improves 
the  beauty,  tends  somewliat  to  diminish  the  strength, 
of  the  texture.  It  is  produced  by  carding  the  cloth 
with  a  species  of  bur,  the  fruit  of  the  common  teasel, 
which  is  cultivated  for  the  purpose.  This  operation 
extracts  a  part  of  the  fibres,  and  lays  them  in  a  paral- 
lel direction.  The  nap,  composed  of  these  fibres,  is 
then  cut  ofl'  to  an  even  surface,  by  the  process  of  shear- 
ing. 

II.  Machinery  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cloth,  etc. 
— It  is  obvious,  that,  without  the  aid  of  machinery,  the 
human  hands  could  do  very  little  at  twisting  and  weav- 
ing flexible  fibres.  Hence  the  spinning-wheel  and  loom 
are  among  the  earliest  inventions  of  human  ingenuity. 
Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  spinning  was  the  chief 
employment  of  the  women.  The  rites  of  marriage  di- 
rected their  attention  to  it,  and  the  distaft'  and  fleece 
were  not  only  the  emblems,  but  the  objects,  of  the  most 
important  domestic  duties  of  a  wife.  The  machinery 
employed  in  weaving,  though  rude  in  construction,  was 
in  principle  similar  to  that  still  in  use  ;  and  the  process 
o(  fulling  and  preparing  the  cloth  seems  to  have  re- 
sembled the  modern  practice,  in  every  particular  point, 
except  that  of  shearing  the  nap,  with  which  the  ancients 
do  not  appear  to  have  been  acquainted.  In  early  rec- 
ords, wo  do  not  read,  however,  of  cloth  being  meas- 
ured, which  appears  to  have  arisen  from  a  custom  of 
weaving  no  more  cloth  in  one  piece  than  was  sufficient 
to  form  a  single  dress. 

Muslins  are  to  this  day  manufactured  by  the  primitive 
boor,  in  India,  probably  without  any  material  alteration 
of  the  form  in  use  during  the  earliest  ages  of  its  inven- 
tion. It  consists  merely  of  two  bamboo  rollers,  one  for 
the  warp  the  other  for  the  cloth  with  a  pair  of  gear  ;  the 
shuttle  performing  the  office  of  the  batoon.  This  simple 
apparatus  the  Indian  weaver  frequently  erects  under 
the  shade  of  a  tree.  He  digs  a  hole,  large  enough  to 
contain  his  legs,  and  the  lower  part  of  his  gear  ;  he  then 
stretches  his  warp,  by  fastening  the  rollers  at  due  dis- 


142      MANUFACTURE  OF  CLOTH^  PAPER,  ETC. 

tances,  on  the  turf,  and  suspends  the  balances  of  the 
gear  from  the  spreading  branches  of  the  tree  ;  two 
loops  beneath  the  gear,  into  which  he  inserts  his  great 
t(»os,  serve  instead  of  treadles:  and  with  his  long  shut- 
tle he  draws  the  weft  through  tiie  warp,  and  afterwards 
closes  it  up  to  the  web  .* 

Until  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  ail  spinning  was 
performed  by  hand,  with  the  aid  of  the  common  spin- 
ning-wheel. Locks  of  cotton  or  wool,  previously  card- 
ed, were  attached  to  a  rapidly-revolving  spindle,  driv- 
en by  a  large  wheel,  and  were  stretched  or  drawn  by 
the  hand,  at  the  same  time  that  they  were  twisted  by 
the  spindle  upon  which  they  were  afterwards  wound. 
Flax,  the  fibres  of  which  are  longer  and  more  parallel, 
was  loosely  wound  upon  a  distafl",  from  which  the  fibres 
were  selected,  and  drawn  out  by  the  thumb  and  fineer, 
and  at  the  same  time  were  twisted  by  flyers,  and  wound 
upon  a  bobbin  which  revolved  with  a  velocity  somewhat 
greater  than  that  of  the  flyers. 

The  first  effort  made  to  substitute  machinery,  on  a 
larger  scale,  in  the  manufacture  of  flexible  stuffs,  was 
in  1767,  v.hen  E.ichard  Hargreaves,  a  carpenter,  in 
Lancashire,  England,  introduced  the  spinning-jenyiy, 
which  gave  the  means  of  spinning  twenty  or  thirty 
threads  of  cotton,  with  no  more  labor  than  had  been 
previously  required  to  spin  a  single  thread.  In  its  sim- 
plest form,  it  resembles  a  number  of  spindles,  turned 
by  a  common  wheel  or  cylinder.  It  was  doubtless  a 
great  improvement  upon  the  one-thread  icheel ;  but 
still  had  two  important  defects,  first,  because  it  required 
to   be  worked   by   hand  ;   and  secondly,  because  the 

*Ulloa  mentions,  that  the  Indians  of  South  America  have  no  other 
method  of  making  cloth,  than  by  taking  up  thread  after  thread  of  the 
warp  and  passing  the  woof  between  them,  by  the  hand  ;  and  he  adds, 
that  they  are  thus  frequently  engaged,  for  two  or  three  years,  in  the 
weaving  of  hammocks,  coverlids,  and  other  coarse  cloths,  which  a 
European  would,  by  means  of  his  loom,  produce  in  as  many  days,  or 
probably  hours.  From  inscriptions  on  their  monuments,  it  would  ap- 
pear, that  the  ancient  Egyptianswere  not  unacquainted  with  the  use  of 
the  shuttle. 


SPINMNG-FRAME.  143 

thread  spun  by  it  could  only  be  used  as  weft,  not  being 
twisted  hard  enough  to  answer  the  purpose  of  warp. 

Tliis  deficiency  was  supplied,  two  years  after,  by 
Richard  Arkwright,*  a  barber  of  Preston,  who  invented 
the  ivater-spinning-frame,  a  machine,  which  may  be 
moved  entirely  by  water  or  steam,  and  which  does  the 
work  of  the  human  fingers,  upon  a  vast  number  of 
threads,  of  any  degree  of  fineness,  in  the  same  time 
that  was  previously  required  to  produce  a  single  thread  ; 
and  docs  this  work,  too,  with  much  greater  precision. 
This  ingenious  man  and  great  benefactor  of  the  human 
race,!  informs  us,  that  he  derived  the  first  hint  of  his 
machine  from  seeing  a  red-hot  bar  of  iron  elongated, 
by  being  made  to  pass  between  rollers. 

His  spinning-frame  consists  of  two  pairs  of  rollers, 

*  For  a  notice  of  Arkwright,  sec  tiie  second  Volume  of  '  Pursuit 
of  Knowledge  under  Ditiiculties,'  being  Volume  xv.  of  '  The 
School  Library,'  Larger  Series. 

t  Mr.  Baines  seems  to  have  liave  shown,  that  the  merit  of  being  the 
original  discoverer  of  this  great  invention  is  due  to  a  .Mr.  John  Wyatt, 
who  took  out,  in  the  name  of  Mr.  Lewis  Paul,  a  foreigner,  a  patent, 
wherein  the  process  of  spinning  by  rollers  is  distinctly  described,  so 
early  as  1738,  or  thirty-one  years  before  Arkwriglit's  patent.  And  it 
further  appears,  that,  in  1741  or  1742.  Wyatt  erected  a  mill  at  Birming- 
ham, whish  was  turned  by  two  asses,  and  attended  by  ten  girls.  Some 
of  the  yarn,  spun  by  this  mill,  is  still  in  existence.  Owing,  however, 
to  the  imperfectness  of  the  machinery,  the  want  of  skill,  capital,  or 
some  other  cause,  this  undertaking  was  speedily  abandoned.  The  in- 
vention was  soon  after  tried,  on  a  larger  scale,  at  Northampton,  but 
with  no  better  success.  It  appears,  from  the  special  reference  made 
to  them,  in  the  case  printed  by  Sir  Richard  .\rkwright,  in  1786,  that  he 
was  fully  aware  of  these  attempts  to  spin  by  machinery  ;  but  it  is  not 
known,  whether  he  was  aware  of  the  principle  on  which  they  proceed- 
ed, or  had  seen  the  patent  referred  to.  I'ndoubtedly,  however,  the 
presumption  seems  to  be,  that  he  had  seen  it  ;  and  if  so,  he  cannot  be 
regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the  spinnmg  frame.  But,  notwithstand- 
ing this  deduction  from  his  extraordinary  merits,  enough  will  still  re- 
main, to  justify  the  claims  of  Arkwright  to  the  respect  and  gratitude 
of  mankind.  The  machine  he  constructed,  though  in  principle  the 
same,  dilTered  materially,  in  its  form  and  make,  from  that  of  Wyatt. 
In  the  hands  of  the  latter,  the  invention,  how  ingenious  soever,  was 
of  no  practical  utility  ;  anti  all  traces  of  it  seem  to  have  been  lost. 
If  Arkwright  did  not  invent  it  a  second  time,  he  did  what  was  equal- 
ly important  ;  he  made  it  available  in  practice,  and  showed  how  it 
might  be  rendered  the  most  prolific  source  of  individual  and  publii^ 
wealth. — McCuUoch's  Statistics  of  the  British  Empire. 


144      MANUFACTURE  OF  CLOTH,  PAPER,  ETC. 

lurned  by  means  of  macliinery  :  the  lower  roller  of  each 
pair  is  furrowed  or  fluted,  longitudinally,  and  the  upper 
one  is  covered  with  leather,  to  make  them  take  a  hold 
of  the  cotton.  If  there  were  only  one  pair  of  rollers,  it 
is  clear  ihat  a  carding  of  cotton  passed  between  them 
would  be  drawn  forward  by  the  revolution  of  the  rollers, 
but  it  would  merely  undergo  a  certain  degree  of  com- 
pression from  their  action.  No  sooner,  however,  has 
the  carding,  or  roving,  as  it  is  technically  called,  begun 
to  pass  through  the  first  pair  of  rollers,  than  it  is  receiv- 
ed by  the  second  pair,  which  are  made  to  revolve  with 
(as  the  case  may  be)  three,  four,  or  five,  times  the  ve- 
locity of  the  first  pair.  By  this  admirable  contrivance, 
the  roving  is  drawn  out  into  the  desired  degree  of  fine- 
ness, a  twist  being  given  to  it,  by  the  adaptation  of 
the  spindle  and  fly  of  the  common  flax-wheel  to  the 
machinery. 

This  instrument  has  been  since  applied  to  the  spin- 
ning of  wool ;  the  spindles  being  mounted  on  a  car- 
riage, which  passes  backwards  and  forwards,  so  as  to 
stretch  the  material  at  the  same  time  that  it  is  twisted. 
The  application  of  machinery  to  the  spinning  of  flax 
and  hemp  is  rendered  very  difficult,  by  the  length  and 
comparative  rigidity  of  the  fibres,  which  prevent  us  from 
preparing  them  by  carding,  as  cotton  and  wool  are  pre- 
pared, or  from  drawing  them  by  rollers.  Many  efforts 
have  been  made  to  spin  flax  by  machinery ;  but,  thus 
far,  with  no  great  success,  except  in  the  production  of 
coarse  threads.*  The  manufacture  of  fine  threads, 
such  as  those  used  for  cambric  and  lace,  has  continued, 
until  very  lately,  to  be  performed  by  hand,  upon  the 
ancient  spinning-wheel.  In  the  manufacture  of  silk, 
machinery  is  now  applied,  on  the  most  extensive  scale, 
for  winding,  spinning,  and  weaving. 

*  This  remark  needs  qualification.  p"'ine  threads  are  now  spun  by 
machinery  ;  and,  according  to  Dr.  Ure,  (Dictionary  of  the  Arts,)  the 
art  has  been  brought  to  a  perfection  in  Leeds,  (England,)  and  Dun- 
dee, (Scotland,)  little  short  of  that  for  which  the  cotton  trade  has 
been  so  long  distinguished. 


COTTON  MANUFACTURE.  145 

It  is  impossible,  in  a  work  like  the  present,  to  describe, 
or  even  notice,  the  vast  variety  of  machines,  which  are 
now  employed  in  cloth  manufacture.  As  the  cotton 
machinery  is  peculiarly  interesting,  on  account  of  the 
great  use  made  of  it  in  this  country,  we  shall  briefly 
describe  the  various  processes  pursued,  in  transforming 
the  raw  cotton,  as  it  comes  from  the  field,  into  cloth. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

COTTON  MANUFACTURE. 

The  first  process  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  is 
called  ginning,  the  object  of  which  is,  to  cleanse  the 
cotton  from  the  seed.  There  are  two  machines,  for 
this  purpose,  called  the  rolling-gin  and  the  saw-gin. 
Tiie  essential  parts  of  the  first,  are  two  small  cylinders, 
revolving  in  contact  or  nearly  so.  The  cotton  is  drawn 
between  the  rollers,  wliile  the  size  of  the  seeds  prevents 
them  from  following.  The  saw-gin,  invented  by  our 
countryman,  Mr.  Whitney,  is  used  for  the  green-seed 
cotton,  the  seeds  of  wiiich  adhere  too  strongly  to  be 
separated  by  the  other  method.  It  is  a  receiver,  having 
one  side  covered  with  strong  parallel  wires,  about  an 
eightli  of  an  inch  apart.  Between  these  wires,  pass  a 
number  of  circular  saws,  revolving  on  a  common  axis. 
The  cotton  is  entangled  in  the  teeth  of  the  saws,  and 
drawn  out  tin-ough  the  grating ;  while  the  seeds  are 
prevented,  by  their  size,  from  passing.  The  cotton, 
thus  extricated,  is  swept  from  the  saws  by  a  revolving 
cylindrical  brush,  and  the  seeds  fall  out,  at  the  bottom 
of  the  receiver.*     To  this  ingenious  contrivance,  the 

*  American  cotton  is  generally  known  by  the  names  of  seaisland 
and  upland.  The  former  grows  along  the  low,  sandy  shores  of  Caro- 
lina, Georgia,  &c.  It  is  long  in  the  staple,  has  an  even,  silky  texture, 
a  yellowish  tinge,  is  easily  separated  from  the  seed,  and  is  decidedly 
superior  to  every  other  description  of  cotton  hitherto  brought  to  mar- 
ket. Unfortunately,  however,  it  can  be  raised  only  in  certain  sitaa 
13  S.  A. 


146  COTTON  MANCFACTURE. 

cotton-growing  States  of  our  Union  owe  all  the  wealth 
derived  from  that  culture.  Previous  to  1739,  those 
States  had  not  raised  a  pound  for  exportation  ;  and  even 
subsequently.,  though  the  cultivation  was  encouraged, 
by  a  dutv  of  three  cents  a  pound  on  imported  cotton, 
it  languished,  solely  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  sep- 
arating the  seed  from  the  fibre.  Since  Mr.  Whitney's 
invention  was  introduced,  the  amount  raised  has  in- 
creased so  rapidly,  that  in  1834  it  averaged  more  than 
one  milhon  of  bales,  or  one  hundred  and  eighty  thous- 

tions  ;  so  that  its  quantitv  is  limited,  and  has  not,  in  fact,  been  at  all 
increased,  since  1S05.  At  present,  ninety-seven  or  ninetv-eight  per 
cent,  of  the  cotton  produced  in  the  United  States  consists  of  what  is 
denominated  upland,  from  its  being  grown  on  the  comparativelv  high 
grounds  at  a  distance  from  the  coast.  Though  of  varying  qualities, 
it  is  all  short  stapled  ;  and  its  separation  from  the  seed  and  pod,  if 
attempted  bv  the  hand,  is  so  very  diliicult,  that  the  cotton  is  hardly 
worth  the  trouble  and  expense.  This,  however,  was  the  only  way 
in  which  it  could  be  made  available,  for  home  use  or  exportation,  in 
1791  ;  and,  had  any  one  then  ventured  to  predict,  that  ten  millions  of 
pounds  of  upland  cotton  would  ever  be  exported,  he  would  have  been 
looked  upon  as  a  visionary  dreamer.  But  the  genius  and  talent  of  4 
Mr.  Eli  Whitney  did  for  the  cotton  planters  of  the  United  States  what 
Arkwright  did  for  the  manufacturers  of  Ungland.  He  invented  a 
machine,  by  which  the  cotton  wool  is  separated  from  the  pod,  and 
cleaned,  with  the  greatest  ease  and  expedition  ;  and,  in  this  way, 
doubled  the  wealth  and  industry  of  his  countrymen. — {Pitkin's  Sta- 
tistics of  the  United  States,  page  109,  ed.  1835.)  Mr.  Whitney's  in- 
vention came  into  operation  in  1793  ;  and  in  1794,  one  million  six  hun- 
dred and  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  sixty  pounds,  and  in  1795, 
five  millions  two  hundred  and  seventy-six  thousand  three  hundred 
pounds  of  cotton  were  exported  !  The  efiect  of  the  machine  was,  like 
that  of  Arkwright"s,  all  but  miracrdoas.  The  exports  of  cotton  from 
America,  during  the  year  which  ended  30th  September,  1838,  amount- 
ed to  the  enormous  sum  of  five  hundred  and  ninety-five  millions  nine 
hundred  and  fifty-two  thousand  two  hundred  and  ninety-seven  pounds  ; 
worth,  when  shipped,  sixty-one  millions  five  hundred  and  fifty-six 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  eleven  dollars.  And  it  is  not  going  too 
far  to  say,  that,  had  not  Whitney's  or  some  equivalent  machine, 
been  invented,  there  is  no  reason  to  think  that  the  exports,  during  the 
above  year,  would  have  exceeded  thirty-four  millions  of  pounds,  if  so 
much  ;  so  that  the  existence  of  the  other  five  hundred  and  sixty  mil- 
lions of  pounds,  with  the  greatest  part  of  that  retained  for  home  con- 
sumption, may  be  ascribed  to  3Ir.  W"hitney's  machine,  as  to  its  real 
source  and  origin  ! 

The  amount  exported  from  October  1,  lS39,to  Auffust,  1840,  was 
about  seven  hundred  and  fourteen  millions  of  pounds. 


PREPARATORY  TO  CARDING.  147 

and  tons,  annually.  The  amount  raised  in  1839  was 
more  than  two  millions  one  hundred  and  sixteen  thous- 
and nine  hundred  and  sixty  bales,  or  three  hundred  and 
eighty-one  thousand  tons  ;  one,  among  a  thousand  sim- 
ilar instances,  of  the  etiect  of  labor-saving  machines  in 
stimulating  industry. 

2.  The  next  process  is  to  open,  clean,  and  spread,  the 
cotton,  preparatory  to  carding.  This  is  done,  by  first 
spreading  out  the  contents  of  different  bags,  of  different 
kinds  of  cotton,  in  separate  horizontal  layers,  one  over 
another.  This  heap,  or  bing,  having  been  pressed  down 
in  the  manner  of  a  haystack,  the  cotton  is  then  torn 
down  by  a  rake  from  top  to  bottom,  by  which  means, 
if  the  work  be  skilfully  done,  the  contents  of  the  differ- 
ent bags  must  be  collected  together,  into  masses  of  uni- 
form quality. 

The  cotton,  being  in  matted  masses,  or  flocks,  is  then 
loosened,  and  partially  cleaned  from  dirt,  by  means  of 
the  ivillow.  This  instrument,  as  its  name  would  in- 
timate, was  originally  a  willow  basket,  but  is  now  a  cy- 
lindrical box  of  wood,  with  revolving  iron  spikes. 

The  revolutions,  being  very  rapid,  (six  hundred  in  a 
minute.)  serve  both  to  winnow  and  loosen  the  cotton, 
the  heavy  impurities  falling  down,  through  the  bottom. 

The  cotton  then  passes  to  the  scidching  machine,  in 
order  to  be  more  thoroughly  opened  and  purified.  This 
instrument  is  so  contrived,  that  it  beats,  scutches,  and 
blows.  After  passing  slowly  through  feeding  rollers, 
made  of  wood,  the  cotton  is  struck  by  a  set  of  beaters, 
revolving  sixteen  hundred  or  more  times  in  a  minute. 
It  is  thus  passed  through  two  sets  of  rollers,  and  sub- 
jected to  two  sets  of  beaters. 

The  cotton  is  then  taken  to  the  spreading  machine, 
the  use  of  which  is  to  spread  a  given  weight  of  cleaned 
cotton  into  a  given  length  and  breadth,  in  order  to  its  be- 
ing presented  of  uniform  thickness  to  the  next  machine 

3.  Up  to  this  stage,  the  fibres  of  the  cotton  cross 
each  other  in  every  direction.  The  use  of  the  next 
operation  is  to  disentangle  them,  to  draw  them  out,  and 


148  COTTON  MANUFACTURE. 

lay  them  parallel  to  each  other.  This  is  called  carding. 
The  cotton  is  carried  over  the  surface  of  a  revolving 
cylinder,  which  is  covered  with  card-teeth,  of  wire,  and 
which  passes  in  contact  ^vith  an  arch  or  part  of  a  concave 
cylinder,  similarly  covered  with  teeth.  From  this  cyl- 
inder, called  the  breaker,  the  cotton  is  taken  off,  by  an- 
other, called  the  doffing  cylinder,  which  revolves  in  an 
opposite  direction  ;  and  from  this,  it  is  again  removed, 
by  the  rapid  vibrating  motion  of  a  transverse  comb, 
otherwise  called  the  doffing-plate,  moved  by  cranks.  It 
then  passes  through  a  second  carding,  in  the  finishing 
cylinder,  from  which  it  is  carried  through  a  kind  of 
funnel,  by  which  it  is  contracted  into  a  narrow  band  or 
sliver,  and  received  into  tin  cases  in  the  state  of  a  uni- 
form continued  carding. 

4.  The  next  step  in  the  process  is  called  drawing 
and  plying ;  the  object  of  which  is,  to  arrange  all  the 
fibres  of  the  cotton  longitudinally,  in  a  uniform  and 
parallel  direction,  to  do  away  all  the  inequalities  of 
thickness.  It  is  eftected  by  the  use  of  a  double  pair  of 
rollers,  similar  to  those  already  described  in  Arkwright's 
spinning-frame ;  the  greater  velocity  of  the  second  pair 
of  rollers  serving  to  draw  out  the  roll  of  cotton  into  a 
smaller  size,  and  these  smaller  rolls  being  then  united, 
are  plyed,  by  passing  through  the  rollers  a  second  and 
third  time. 

5.  Roving  the  cotton,  which  is  the  next  part  of  the 
process,  gives  it  a  slight  twist,  which  converts  it  into  a 
soft  and  loose  thread,  called  the  roving.  The  machine 
for  performing  this  operation  is  called  the  roving-frame, 
or  double-speeder.  In  order  to  wind  tlie  roving  upon 
the  bobbins  of  the  spindles,  in  even,  cylindrical  layers, 
the  spindle-rail  is  made  to  rise  and  fall  slowly,  by  means 
of  heart- wheels  in  the  interior  of  the  machine.  And 
as  the  size  of  the  bobbins  is  augmented  by  each  layer, 
the  velocity  of  the  spindles  and  of  the  spindle-rail  is 
made  to  diminish,  gradually,  from  the  beginning  to  the 
end  of  the  operation.  This  is  eflfected,  very  ingenious- 
ly, by  transmitting  the  motion  of  both  througli  two  op 


SPINNING.  149 

posite  cones,  one  of  wliich  drives  the  other  with  a  band, 
which  is  made  to  pass  slowly  from  one  end  to  the  other 
jf  the  cones,  and  thus  continually  alter  their  relative 
speed,  and  cause  a  uniform  retardation  of  the  velocity. 
Hence  called,  double-speeder. 

6.  The  roving  having  been  wound  on  the  bobbins, 
is  transferred  to  the  spiniiing-frame  ;  and,  in  the  man- 
ner already  described,  is  reduced  to  a  thread  of  the  re- 
quired fineness,  the  twist  being  given  by  flyers.  Where 
thread  of  the  finest  kind  is  required,  it  is  effected  by 
also  stretching  the  yarn,  in  the  direction  of  its  length, 
which  serves  to  reduce  those  places  in  the  yarn  which 
have  a  greater  diameter  than  the  rest,  so  that  the  size 
and  twist  may  become  uniform  throughout.  This  is 
effected,  as  in  spinning  wool,  by  mounting  the  spindles 
on  a  movable  carriage,  called  a  mule,  which  recedes, 
when  the  threads  are  to  be  stretched,  and  returns,  when 
they  are  to  be  wound  up.*     To  show  the  astonishing 

*  At  first,  the  mule  cr.rried  only  one  hundred  and  forty-four  spin- 
dles ;  but  b}'  successive  improvements  it  was  rendered  capable,  about 
a  dozen  years  ai^o,  of  working  three  or  four  hundred  spindles.  Its 
maximum  capability  was  far,  however,  from  being  yet  attained  ;  and 
several  mules  are  now  at  work  in  ^lanchester,  and  other  places,  car- 
rying the  extraordinary  number  of  from  seven  to  eight  hundred  spin- 
dles, and  a  few  as  many  as  eleven  hundred  spindles. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made,  at  different  periods,  to  work  the 
mule  solely  by  machinery,  without  the  aid  of  manual  labor.  But 
none  of  the  contrivances  for  that  purpose  were  altogether  successful. 
till  the  self-acting  mule  of  Messrs.  Sharpe  and  Roberts,  of  Manches- 
ter, came  recently  into  the  field.  The  machinery  is  so  constructed, 
as  to  roll  the  spindle  carriage  out  and  in,  at  the  proper  speed,  without 
a  hand  touching  it  ;  the  only  manual  labor  employed  in  these  ma- 
chines being  that  of  the  children  who  join  the  broken  threads.  For- 
merly, the  machine  had  to  be  rolled  in  by  hand,  and  required  the 
strength  of  a  man.  The  machine  seems  to  have  come  very  near 
perfection,  producing  a  considerably  greater  quantity  of  yarn,  of  a 
more  uniform  twist,  and  less  liable  to  break,  than  mules  wrought  by 
the  hand  ;  at  the  same  time  that  it  has  the  important  advantage  of 
rendering  the  mill  owners  independent  of  the  combinations  and  strikes 
of  the  working  spinners.  l\Ir.  Baines  mentions,  that  the  patentees  in- 
formed him  in  Alarch,  1834,  that  they  had  then  made  five  hundred 
and  twenty  self-acting  mules,  containing  upwards  of  two  hundred 
and  eighty  thousand  spindles,  and  that  that  number  was  likely  to  be 
more  than  doubled,  in  the  course  of  the  year. — Mc-Culloch's  StatiS' 
tirs  of  the  British  Empire. 

13* 


150  COTTON  MANUFACTURE. 

minuteness  to  which  the  cotton  thread  may  be  reduced, 
we  may  state,  that  one  pound  has  been  spun  into  a 
thread  one  hundred  and  sixty-seven  miles  long. 

7.  The  spinning  process  being  completed,  that  of 
weaving  begins.  The  first  step,  preparatory  to  weav- 
ing, is,  to  form  a  warp,  the  threads  of  which  were  for- 
merly attached  to  as  many  pins,  and  drawn  out  to  the 
required  length  ;  but  as  this  method  required  too  much 
room,  a  warping  machine  was  subsequently  used,  in 
which  the  mass  of  threads,  intended  to  constitute  a 
warp,  was  wound,  in  a  spiral  course,  upon  a  large  re- 
volving frame  which  rose  and  fell,  so  as  to  produce  the 
spiral  distribution. 

These  methods,  however,  are  now  superseded,  in 
this  country,  by  a  warping  machine,  invented  by  the 
late  Paul  Moody,  of  Lowell,  Massachusetts,  long  dis- 
tinguished as  a  machinist,  and  the  author  of  several 
gi-eat  improvements  in  the  spinning,  roving,  and  dress- 
ing, frames.  The  most  interesting  part  of  this  machine 
is  a  contrivance,  which  he  introduced,  for  stopping  the 
machine,  if  a  single  thread  of  the  warp  breaks.  To  ef- 
fect this  object,  a  small  steel  weight,  or  flattened  wire, 
is  suspended  by  a  hook,  from  each  thread,  so  that  it 
falls,  if  the  thread  is  broken.  Beneath  the  row  of 
weights,  a  cylinder  revolves,  furnished  with  several 
projecting  ledges,  extending  its  whole  length,  parallel 
to  the  axis.  When  one  of  the  weights  falls,  by  the 
breaking  of  its  thread,  it  intercepts  one  of  the  ledges, 
and  causes  the  cylinder  to  exert  its  force  upon  an  el- 
bow, or  toggle-joint,  which  disengages  a  clutch,  and 
stops  the  machine.  After  the  thread  is  tied,  and  the 
weight  raised,  the  machine  proceeds. 

The  process  of  weaving  I  have  already  described, 
as  far  as  my  limits  allow.  For  the  last  twenty  years, 
looms,  driven  by  water  or  steam,  have  been  substituted 
for  the  hand-loom.  The  motions  being  principally  of 
a  reciprocating  kind,  are  produced  either  by  cranks,  or 
by  cams  or  wipers  acting  upon  the  weights  or  springs. 

The  course  taken  by  the  cotton,  in  its  various  trans- 


VAniOtrS  TRANSFORMATIONS   OF   COTTON.  15i 

formations,  is  thus  briefly  described  by  Mr.  Baines,  in 
liis  History  of  the  Cotton  Manufacture. 

'•'  The  cotton  is  brouglit  to  the  mill  in  bags,  just  as 
it  is  received  from  America,  Egypt,  or  India,  and  is 
then  stowed  in  warehouses,  being  arranged  according 
to  the  countries  from  which  it  may  have  come.  It  is 
passed  through  the  willow,  the  scutching-machine,  and 
the  sprcading-machine,  in  order  to  be  opened,  cleaned, 
and  evenly  spread.  By  the  carding-engine,  the  fibres 
are  combed  out,  and  laid  parallel  to  each  other,  and  the 
piece  is  compressed  into  a  sliver.  The  sliver  is  repeat- 
edly drawn  and  doubled  in  the  drawing-frame,  more 
perfectly  to  straighten  the  fibres,  to  equalize  the  grist. 
The  roving-frame,  by  rollers  and  spindles,  produces  a 
coarse  and  loose  thread,  which  the  mule,  or  throstle, 
spins  into  yarn.  To  make  the  warp,  the  twist  is  trans- 
ferred from  cops  to  bobbins,  by  the  winding-machine, 
and  from  the  bobbins  at  the  warping-mill  to  a  cylin- 
drical beam.  This  beam,  being  taken  to  the  dressing- 
macliine,  the  warp  is  sized,  dressed,  and  wound  upon 
the  weaving-beam.  The  latter  is  then  placed  in  the 
power-loom,  by  which  machine,  the  shuttle  being  sup- 
plied with  cops  of  weft,  the  cloth  is  woven. 

'*'  Such,  without  entering  into  minutiae,  are  the  pro- 
cesses, by  which  the  vegetable  wool  is  converted  into 
a  woven  fabric,  of  great  beauty  and  delicacy ;  and  it 
will  be  perceived,  that  the  operations  are  numerous, 
and  every  one  of  them  is  performed  by  machinery, 
without  the  help  of  human  hands,  except  merely  in 
transferring  the  material  from  one  machine  to  another. 
It  is  by  iron  fingers,  teeth,  and  wheels,  moving  with 
exhaustless  energy  and  devouring  speed,  that  tlic  cot- 
ton is  opened,  cleaned,  spread,  carded,  roved,  spun, 
wound,  warped,  dressed,  and  woven.  The  various 
machines  are  proportioned  to  each  other,  in  regard  to 
their  capability  of  work  ;  and  they  are  so  placed  in  the 
mill,  as  to  allow  the  materials  to  be  carried  from  stage 
to  stage,  with  the  least  possible  loss  of  time.  All  are 
moving  at  once ;   the  operations  chasing  each  other ; 


152  CLOTH  MANUFACTURE   CONTINUED,  ETC. 

and  all  derive  their  motion  from  the  mighty  engine, 
which,  firmly  seated  in  the  lower  part  of  the  building, 
and  constantly  fed  witli  water  and  fuel,  toils  through 
the  day,  with  the  strength  of  a  hundred  horses.*  Men, 
in  the  mean  while,  have  merely  to  attend  on  this  won- 
derful series  of  mechanism,  to  supply  it  with  work,  to 
oil  its  joints,  to  check  its  slight  and  infrequent  irregu- 
larities ;  each  workman  performing,  or  rather  superin- 
tending, as  much  work,  as  could  have  been  done  by 
two  or  three  hundred  men,  sixty  years  since." 


CHAPTER  VII. 


CLOTH   MANUFACTURE   CONTINUED. PAPER-^IAKING. 

DYEING,   ETC. 

Nothing  places  in  a  more  striking  light  the  vast  im- 
provement which  has  taken  place  in  the  mechanical 
arts,  since  the  era  of  Arkwright,  than  the  condition  of 
paper-machine  factories. 

Till  within  the  last  thirty  years,  the  linen  and  hemp- 
en rags,  and  other  materials  from  which  paper  was 
made,  were  reduced  to  the  pasty  state  of  comminution, 
requisite  for  this  manufacture,  by  washing  them  with 
water,  and  setting  the  mixture  to  ferment,  for  many 
days,  in  close  vessels,  whereby  they  underwent,  in  re- 
ality, a  species  of  putrefaction.     It  is  easy  to  see  that 

*  The  moving  power  of  a  modern  factory,  besides  its  proper  tasks 
of  picking,  carding,  roving,  spinning,  weaving,  &c.,  docs  a  great  deal 
of  miscellaneous  drudgery.  For  example  :  it  raises  the  coals  from 
their  bins  in  the  yard,  by  a  sloping  series  of  buckets,  like  those  of 
a  dredging-machine  for  deepening  rivers,  and  delivers  them  on  an  el- 
evated railway  platform,  into  a  wagon,  through  the  drop-bottom  of 
which  they  are  duh'  distributed  among  a  range  of  hoppers,  attached 
0  the  furnace-feeding  machines.  It  also  carries  the  work-people 
upwards  or  downwards,  to  any  floor  of  the  factory  to  which  their  busi- 
ness may  call  them.  Movable  platforms  are  constructed,  capable  of 
holding  half  a  dozen  persons,  and  enclosed  in  upright  tunnels  through 
which  they  move. —  lire. 


PAPER-MAKING.  153 

the  organic  structure  of  the  fibres  would  be  thus  un- 
necessarily altered,  nay,  frequently  destroyed.  The 
next  method  employed  was,  to  beat  the  rags  into  a 
pulp,  by  stamping  rods,  shod  with  iron,  working  in 
strong  oak  mortars,  and  moved  by  water-wheel  ma- 
chinery. So  rude  and  ineffective  was  the  apparatus, 
tiiat  forty  pairs  of  stamps  were  required  to  operate  a 
night  and  a  day,  in  preparing  one  hundred  weight  of 
rags.  The  pulp  or  paste  was  then  diffused  through 
water,  and  made  into  paper,  by  methods  similar  to 
those  still  practised  in  tiie  small  handmills. 

About  tlie  middle  of  the  last  century,  the  cylinder  or 
engine  mode,  as  it  is  called,  of  comminuting  rags  into 
paper  pulp,  was  invented  in  Holland,  which  was  soon 
afterwards  adopted  in  France,  and  at  a  later  period  in 
England  and  America. 

The  first  step  in  the  paper  manufacture  is,  the  sort- 
ing of  the  rags  into  four  or  five  qualities.  They  are 
imported  into  this  Country  and  England,  chiefly  from 
Germany,  and  the  ports  of  the  Mediterranean.  At  the 
mill,  they  are  sorted  again,  more  carefully,  and  cut  into 
siu'cds  by  women.  For  this  purpose,  a  table  frame  is 
covered  at  top  with  wire  cloth,  containing  about  nine 
meshes  to  the  square  inch.  To  this  frame,  a  long  steel 
blade  is  attached,  in  a  slanting  position,  against  whose 
sharp  edge  the  rags  are  cut  into  squares  or  fillets,  after 
having  their  dust  thoroughly  shaken  out,  through  the 
wire  cloth.  Each  piece  of  rag  is  thrown  into  a  certain 
compartment  of  a  box,  according  to  its  fineness  ;  seven 
or  eight  sorts  being  distinguished.  An  active  woman 
can  cut  and  sort  nearly  one  hundred  weight  in  a  day. 

The  sorted  rags  are  next  dusted,  in  a  revolving  cyl- 
inder, surrounded  witii  wire  cloth,  about  six  feet  long 
and  four  feet  in  diameter,  having  spokes,  about  twenty 
inches  long,  attached  at  right  angles  to  its  axis.  These 
prevent  the  rags  from  being  carried  round  with  the 
case,  and  beat  them,  during  its  rotation,  so  that,  in  half 
an  hour,  being  pretty  clean,  they  are  taken  out,  by  the 
side  door  of  the  cylinder,  and  transferred  to  the  engine, 


154  CLOTH  MANUFACTURE  CONTINUED,  ETC. 

to  be  first  washed,  and  next  reduced  into  a  pulp.  For 
fine  paper,  they  should  be  previously  boiled,  for  some 
time,  in  a  caustic  lie,  to  cleanse  and  separate  their  fila- 
ments. 

The  rags  are  washed  and  reduced  to  pulp,  by  means 
of  a  machine,  sometimes  called  a  stufi-engine,  which 
consists  of  a  cylinder,  furnished,  on  its  circumference, 
with  short  knives  or  teeth,  which,  as  it  revolves,  act 
against  another  set  of  knives,  that  are  fixed  to  a  block, — 
the  rags  being,  at  the  same  time,  mixed  with  running 
water,  and  confined  within  a  box  that  contains  the  re- 
volving cylinder. 

The  operation  of  grinding  the  rags  requires  nice 
management.  When  first  put  into  the  washing  en- 
gine, they  should  be  worked  gently,  so  as  not  to  be 
cut,  but  only  powerfully  scrubbed,  in  order  to  enable 
the  water  to  carry  ofi'  the  impurities.  This  effect  is  ob- 
tained, by  raising  the  cylinder  upon  its  shaft,  so  that 
its  teeth  are  separated  considerably  from  those  of  the 
block.  When  the  rags  are  comminuted  too  much  in 
the  washer,  they  would  be  apt  to  be  carried  off"  in  part, 
with  the  stream,  and  be  lost ;  for,  at  this  time,  the  water- 
cock  is  fully  open.  After  washing  in  this  way  for  twen- 
ty or  thirty  minutes,  the  bearings  of  the  cylinder  are 
lowered,  so  that  its  weight  rests  upon  the  cutters.  Now 
the  supply  of  water  is  reduced,  and  the  rags  begin  to 
be  torn,  at  first,  with  considerable  agitation  of  the  mass, 
and  stress  upon  the  machinery.  In  about  three  or  four 
hours,  the  engine  comes  to  work  very  smoothly,  because 
it  has,  by  this  time,  reduced  the  rags  to  the  state  of 
half-stuff.  They  are  then  discharged  into  a  large 
basket,  through  which  the  water  drains  awav. 

The  bleaching  is  usually  performed  upon  the  Iialf- 
stuff".  At  the  celebrated  manufactory  of  Messrs.  Mont- 
golfier,  at  Annonay,  near  Lyons,  France,  chlorine  gas 
is  employed  for  this  purpose,  with  the  best  effect  upon 
the  paper,  since  no  lime  or  muriate  of  lime  can  be  thus 
left  in  it :  a  circumstance  which  often  happens  to  Eng- 
ish  paper,  bleached  in  the  washing-engine  by  the  in 


PAPEIl-MAKING.  155 

troduction  of  chloride  of  lime  among  the  rags,  after 
they  liave  been  well  washed  for  three  or  four  hours  by 
tiie  rotation  of  the  engine.  The  current  of  water  is 
stopped.  wJienever  the  chloride  of  lime  is  put  in.  From 
one  to  two  pounds  of  tiiat  ciiemical  compound  are  suf- 
ficient to  bleach  one  hundred  weight  of  fine  rags  ;  but 
more  must  be  employed  for  the  coarser,  and  darker  col- 
ored. During  the  bleaching  operation,  the  sliders  are 
put  down  in  the  cover  of  the  cylinder,  to  prevent  the 
•water  getting  away.  The  engine  must  be  worked  an 
Jiour  longer  with  the  chloride  of  lime,  to  promote  its 
uniform  operation  upon  the  rags.  The  cylinder  is  usu- 
ally raised  a  litde,  during  this  period,  as  its  only  pur- 
pose is  to  agitate  the  mass,  but  not  to  triturate  it.  The 
water-cock  is  then  opened,  and  the  washing  is  contin- 
ued for  about  an  hour,  to  wash  the  salt  aAvay ;  a  pre- 
caution which  ought  to  be  better  attended  to  than  it 
always  is,  by  paper  manufacturers. 

The  half-stuff,  thus  bleached,  is  now  transferred  to 
the  beating-engine,  and  worked  into  a  fine  pulp.  This 
operation  takes  from  four  to  five  hours ;  a  little  water 
being  admitted,  from  time  to  time,  but  no  current  being 
allowed  to  pass  through,  as  in  the  washing  engine. 
The  softest  and  fairest  water  should  be  selected  for 
this  purpose  :  and  it  should  be  administered  in  nicely- 
regulated  quantities,  so  as  to  produce  a  proper  spissi- 
tude  of  stuff  for  making  paper. 

For  printing-paper,  tiie  sizing  is  given  in  the  beat- 
ing-engine, towards  the  end  of  its  operation.  The  size 
is  formed  of  alum,  in  fine  powder,  ground  up  with  oil ; 
of  whicli  mixture,  about  a  pint  and  a  half  are  thrown 
into  the  engine  at  intervals,  during  the  last  half  hom-'s 
beating.  Sometimes  a  little  indigo-blue  or  smalt  is 
also  added,  when  a  peculiar  bloom  color  is  desired. 
Tlie  pulp  is  now  run  off  into  the  stuff-chest,  where  the 
different  kinds  are  mixed ;  whence  it  is  taken  out,  as 
wanted.  The  chest  is  usually  a  rectangular  vessel  of 
stone,  or  wood  lined  with  lead,  capable  of  containing 
three  hundred  cubic  feet,  at  least,  or  three  engines  full 


156  CLOTH  MANUFACTURE  CON'TINCED,  ETC. 

of  Stuff.  Many  paper-makers  prefer  round  chests,  as 
they  admit  of  rotary  agitators. 

When  the  paper  is  made  in  single  sheets,  by  hand 
labor,  as  in  the  older  establishments,  a  small  quantity 
of  the  stuff  is  transferred  to  the  working-vat,  bv  means 
of  a  pipe,  and  there  properly  diluted  with  water.  This 
vat  is  a  vessel  of  stone  or  wood,  about  five  feet  square 
and  four  deep,  with  sides  somewhat  slanting.  Along 
the  top  of  the  vat,  a  board  is  laid,  with  copper  fillets 
fastened  lengthwise  upon  it,  to  make  the  mould  slide 
more  easily  along.  This  board  is  called  the  bridge. 
The  maker  stands  on  one  side  ;  and  has,  at  his  left 
hand,  a  smaller  board,  one  end  of  which  is  made  fast 
to  the  bridge,  while  the  other  rests  on  the  side  of  the 
vat.  In  the  bridge  opposite  to  this,  a  nearly  upright 
piece  of  wood,  called  the  ass,  is  fastened.  In  the  vat, 
there  is  a  copper,  which  communicates  with  a  steam- 
pipe  to  keep  it  hot ;  there  is  also  an  agitator,  to  main- 
tain the  stuff  of  a  uniform  consistence. 

The  moulds  consist  of  frames  of  wood,  neatly  joined 
at  the  corners,  with  wooden  bars  running  across,  about 
an  inch  and  a  half  apart.  Across  these,  in  the  length 
of  the  moulds,  the  wires  run,  from  fifteen  to  twenty  per 
inch.  A  strong  raised  wire  is  laid  along  each  of  the 
cross-bars,  to  which  the  other  wires  are  fastened ;  this 
gives  the  laid  paper  its  ribbed  appearance. 

The  water-mark  is  made  by  sewing  a  raised  piece 
of  wire,  in  the  form  of  letters,  or  any  figured  device, 
upon  the  wires  of  the  mould,  which  makes  the  paper 
thinner  in  these  places.  The  frame-work  of  a  wove 
mould  is  nearly  the  same :  but,  instead  of  sewing  on 
separate  wires,  the  frame  is  covered  with  fine  wife 
cloth,  containing  from  forty-eight  to  sixty-four  meshes 
per  inch  square.  Upon  both  moulds  a  deckel,  or  mov- 
able raised  edge-frame,  is  used,  which  must  fit  very 
neatly  ;   otherwise,  the  edges  of  the  paper  will  be  rough. 

The  workman,  provided  with  a  mould,  dips  up  a  por- 
tion of  the  pulp,  and  holds  it  in  a  horizontal  direction, 
shaking  it  gently.     This  is  a  very  delicate  operation ; 


PAPER-MAKING.  157 

for,  if  tJie  mould  be  not  held  perfectly  level,  one  part 
of  the  sheet  will  be  thicker  than  another.  The  water 
runs  out  through  the  interstices  of  the  wires,  and  leaves 
a  fibrous  coating,  in  the  form  of  a  sheet,  upon  the  bot- 
tom of  the  mould.  Tl'.e  sheets,  thus  formed,  are  sub- 
jected to  pressure,  first  between  felts  or  woollen  cloths, 
and  afterwards  alone.  If  intended  for  writing-paper, 
they  are  then  sized,  by  dipping  them  in  a  thin  solution 
of  gelatin,  or  glue,  obtained  from  the  shreds  and  par- 
ings of  animal  skins.  The  use  of  the  size  is  to  increase 
the  strength  of  the  paper,  and,  by  filling  its  interstices, 
to  prevent  the  ink  from  spreading  among  the  fibres,  by 
capillary  attraction.  In  blotting-paper,  the  usual  sizing 
is  omitted,  and  in  printing-paper  less  is  used.  The  pa- 
per, after  being  dried,  is  pressed,  examined,  selected, 
and  made  into  quires  and  reams.  Hot-pressed  paper 
is  rendered  glossy,  by  pressing  it  between  hot  plates  of 
polished  metal. 

Paper  is  also  manufactured  by  machinery,  and  one 
of  the  most  ingenious  methods  is  that  invented  by  the 
Messrs.  Fourdrinier.  In  this  arrangement,  instead  of 
moulds,  the  pulp  is  received  in  a  continual  stream,  upon 
the  surface  of  an  endless  web  of  brass  wire,  which  ex- 
tends round  two  revolving  cylinders,  and  is  kept  in  con- 
tinual motion  forwards,  at  the  same  time  that  it  has  a 
tremulous,  or  vibrating,  motion.  The  pulp  is  thus  made 
to  form  a  long,  continual  sheet,  wiiich  is  wiped  oft"  from 
the  wire  web,  by  a  revolving  cylinder,  covered  with 
flannel,  and,  after  being  compressed  between  other  cyl- 
inders, is  finally  wound  into  a  coil,  upon  a  reel  prepar- 
ed for  the  purpose.  From  this  reel  it  is  again  unwound, 
by  means  of  machinery,  and  cut  into  sheets  of  uniform 
size. 

The  machine-made  papers  possess  many  advantages  ; 
they  can  receive,  so  to  speak,  unlimited  dimensions  ;* 
tiiey  preserve  a  perfectly  uniform  thickness,  throughout 
all  their  length  ;  they  may  be  fabricated  in  every  sea- 
son of  the  year  ;  nor  do  they  require  to  be  sorted,  trim- 
*  Pieces  have  been  made,  twelve  Imndred  yards  long. 
l-l  ■  S.   A. 


158  CLOTH  MANUFACTURE  CONTINUED,  ETC. 

med,  and  hung  up  in  the  drying-house,  operations  wMch 
occasioned  great  waste,  amounting  to  no  less  than  one 
defective  sheet  out  of  every  five.  The  continuous 
paper,  at  one  time,  retained  the  impression  of  tlie 
wire-wove  web,  on  its  under  side ;  a  defect  from 
v.'hich  it  has  been  freed,  by  a  pressure  apparatus  of  INIr. 
Donkin. 

The  gi'eatest  difficulty,  formerly  experienced  in  the 
paper  manufactured  upon  the  continuous  system  of 
Fourdrinier,  was  to  remove  the  moisture  from  the  pulp, 
and  condense  it  with  sufficient  rapidity,  so  as  to  prevent 
its  becoming  what  is  called  water-galled,  and  to  permit 
the  web  to  proceed  directly  to  the  drying  cylinders.* 
Hitherto,  no  invention  has  answered  so  well,  in  prac- 
tice, to  remove  this  difficulty,  as  the  channelled  and 
perforated  pulp-rollers,  or  dandies,  of  Mr.  J.  Wilks,  the 
ingenious  partner  of  Mr.  Donkin. 

III.  Chemical  processes,  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  Cloth. — These  are,  Bleaching,  Scouring  or 
Cleansing,  Dying,  and  Calico  Printing. 

1.  Bleaching  is  the  process,  by  which  certain  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  products,  and  especially  such  as  are 
used  as  articles  of  clothing,  are  rendered  white.  The 
principal  substances  of  the  animal  kingdom,  which  are 
subjected  to  the  operation  of  bleaching,  are  wool  and 
silk ;  those  of  vegetable  origin  are  chiefly  cotton  and 
flax.  These  bodies  contain  a  quantity  of  coloring  mat- 
ter, which,  though  natural  to  them,  is  not  an  essential 
constituent ;  it  appears,  also,  that  the  coloring  matter 
is  more  readily  acted  upon  by  chemical  agents,  and  suf- 
fers decomposition  with  greater  facility,  than  the  animal 
and  vegetable  matters  with  which  it  is  united.  On  these 
accounts,  it  is  removed  by  operations,  producing  little 
or  no  injurious  eflect  upon  the  texture  or  durability  of 
t!ie  articles  from  which  it  is  separated,  and  thus,  not 

*  These  are  large,  hollow,  polished  copper  cylinders,  heated  from 
within  by  steam,  and  round  which  the  moist  sheets  are  carried,  in 
order  to  be  dried.  Less  than  two  minutes  is  required  to  transform 
the  pulp  into  sheets  of  dry  finished  paper. 


BLEACHING.  159 

only  is  their  beauty  increased,  but  they  are  fitted  for 
the  reception  of  the  colors  of  the  dyer,  and  the  orna- 
mental designs  of  the  calico-printer. 

The  destruction  of  the  coloring  matters,  attached  to 
the  bodies  to  be  bleached,  is  effected,  either  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  air  and  light,  of  chlorine,  or  of  sulj)hurous 
acid ;  which  may  be  considered  the  three  bleaching 
powers  employed  for  manufacturing  purposes. 

Bleaching,  by  the  influence  of  air  and  sunshine,  is 
the  most  ancient,  and  still  the  most  common,  method, 
in  several  civilized  countries  ;  it  is  also  supposed,  by 
many,  to  be  the  least  injurious  to  the  texture  of  yarn 
and  cloth.  The  operations  it  involves  are  very  simple, 
consisting  in  the  exposure  of  the  goods  upon  a  grass- 
plat,  to  the  sky,  witli  tlieir  occasional  aspersion  witii 
moisture,  if  necessary,  in  addition  to  the  rain  and  dew. 
The  atmospheric  air  effects  the  bleaching,  by  means  of 
its  oxygenous  constituent,  which  combines  with  the  col- 
oring matter,  or  its  elements,  carbon  and  hydrogen,  and 
either  makes  it  nearly  white,  or  converts  it  into  a  sub- 
stance, easily  soluble  in  water  and  alkaline  solutions. 
This  natural  process  is  too  slow,  to  suit  the  modern 
demands  of  the  cotton  and  linen  manufacturers.  For- 
tunately for  them,  a  new  bleaching  agent,  unknown  to 
our  forefathers,  has  been  discovered,  in  dilorine,  for- 
merly called  oxymuriatic  acid,  an  agent  modified  by 
chemistry  so  as  to  give  an  astonishing  degree  of  rapid- 
ity, economy,  and  perfection,  to  this  important  art.  It 
is,  however,  not  a  little  surprising,  that  the  science, 
which  has  so  greatly  advanced  its  practical  part,  should 
have  left  its  theory  far  from  complete,  and  should  afibrd 
no  satisfactory  answers  to  the  two  following  questions : 
What  is  the  action  of  the  solar  rays  upon  the  coloring 
matter  ?  How  do  air  and  chlorine  operate  upon  this 
principle  ? 

Chlorine  was  first  used  in  the  state  of  simple  solu- 
tion in  water ;  afterwards,  in  order  to  lessen  its  de- 
structive action,  when  used  in  too  concentrated  a  state, 
it  was  proposed  to  add  potash  to  it.     This  compound, 


160  CLOTH  MANCTACTTTRE   CONTIMTED,  ETC. 

however,  was  not  found  to  answer  the  purpose ;  and 
the  chloride  of  hme,  generally  known  by  the  nEime  of 
bleaching-powder.  is  now  almost  universally  employed, 
especially  in  the  bleaching  of  cotton  ;  it  is  a  compound, 
which  answers  the  purpose,  with  economy,  celerity,  and 
safety. 

The  coloring  matter  of  cotton,  flax,  and  hemp,  is  in- 
soluble in  water,  and  appears  to  be  of  a  resinous  na- 
ture :  it  is  partially  dissolved  by  heated  solutions  of 
lime  and  potash,  or  soda  :  and  by  their  use.  and  the 
application  of  a  solution  of  bleaching-powder  and  di- 
luted sulphuric  acid,  the  coloring  matter,  which  is  not 
dissolved,  is  destroyed.  Cotton  is  more  readily  bleach- 
ed than  flax  or  hemp  ;  and  these,  more  readily  than 
wool :  indeed,  this  last-mentioned  substance,  as  well  as 
silk,  is  generally  bleached  by  the  fumes  of  burning  sul- 
phur, or  sulphurous  acid  gas,  after  they  have  been  prop- 
erly cleansed.  Straw  and  feathers  are  also  bleached  by 
sulphurous  acid  gas.  "Wax  is  generally  deprived  of  its 
color  by  mere  exposure  to  air,  light,  and  moisture. 

^Vith  respect  to  the  theory  of  bleaching,  it  may  be 
observed;  that  the  action  of  lime,  and  the  alkalies  pot- 
ash and  soda,  appears  to  be  that  of  mere  solvents  ;  they 
probably  dissolve  the  coloring  matter,  without  effecting 
much  alteration  in  its  properties.  The  action  of  at- 
mospheric air,  and  of  chlorine,  seem  to  be  similar  to  each 
other,  and  very  different  from  that  of  lime  and  the  al- 
kalies ;  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  aided  by  the  action  of 
light  and  moisture,  apparently  combines  with  and  de- 
strpys  the  coloring  matter ;  and  the  chlorine,  decom- 
posing water,  one  portion  of  it  forms  muriatic  acid, 
with  its  hydrogen,  and  another  portion,  with  its  oxy- 
gen, probably  gives  rise  to  a  compound  of  easy  decom- 
position, the  nascent  oxygen  of  which,  acting  like  that 
of  the  air,  though  more  powerfully,  produces  the  same 
oxidizing  effect  upon  the  coloring  matter,  but  more  per- 
fectly, and  in  a  much  shorter  period. 

That  water  is  necessary  to  the  action  of  cldorine 
upon  vegetable  coloring  matter  is  shown,  by  immers- 


SCOURING    AND    CLEANSING. DYEING.  IGl 

ing  dry  coloring  matter  in  the  dry  gas,  in  which  case, 
no  decoloration  whatever  is  effected,  but  it  ensues  im- 
mediately on  the  introduction  of  water.*  The  bleach- 
ing of  rags,  for  paper-making,  is  effected  by  the  agen- 
cy of  chlorine.  Paper,  also,  when  written  on,  may  be 
bleached  by  the  same  means. 

There  are  some  operations,  in  which  the  removal  of 
color  is  hardly  referrible  to  the  process  of  bleaching  ; 
such,  for  example,  is  the  decoloration  of  sugar,  which 
derives  its  color,  not  from  any  natural  cause,  but  the 
partial  decomposition  cftbctcd  by  heat.  This  is  remov 
cd  by  what  is  usually  termed  animal-charcoal,  or  ivory- 
black  ;  this  powerful  decolorant  is  also  used  in  some 
chemical  operations,  for  the  same  purpose. 

•2.  Scouring  and  Cleansing. — Wool,  in  its  prepara- 
tion for  dyeing,  requires  to  be"  cleansed  from  a  fatty  sub- 
stance, called  the  yolk,  which  is  contained  in  the  fleece. 
This  is  done  by  means  of  a  weak  alkaline  solution, 
which  converts  the  yolk  into  soap.  Putrid  urine  is 
commonly  employed,  on  account  of  its  cheapness ; 
the  ammonia  it  contains  being  sufficient  to  remove 
the  grease. 

Silk,  when  taken  from  the  cocoon,  is  covered  with 
a  kind  of  varnish,  which,  because  it  does  not  easily 
yield,  either  to  water  or  alcohol,  requires  also  the  aid 
of  a  slight  portion  of  alkali.  Much  care  is  necessary, 
however,  in  this  operation  ;  since  the  silk  itself  is  liable 
to  be  corroded  and  discolored.  Fine  soap  is  common- 
ly used  ;  but  even  this  is  said  to  be  detrimental ;  and 
the  white  China  silk,  which  is  supposed  to  be  prepared 
without  soap,  has  a  lustre  superior  to  the  European. 

3.  Dyeing  is  the  art  of  staining  textile  substances 
with  permanent  colors.  To  cover  their  surfaces  with 
coloring  matters  removable  by  abrasion,  would  be  to 
apply  a  pigment,  rather  than  to  communicate  a  dye. 
Dye-stuff"  can  penetrate  the  minute  pores  of  vegetable 
and  animal  fibres,  only  when  presented  to  them  in  a 
state  of  solution  ;  and  they  can  constitute /asi  colors, 
only  by  passing  afterwards  into  the  state  of  insoluble 

*  Krdp,  in  his  Chemistry,  seems  to  have  shown  liiat  this  statement  in  regard  to  tht 
Mpressity  of  water,  thoiis^h  generally  made  liv  f-'ioin^t';.  !■;  a  mis-aVo. 

11* 


162  CLOTH  MANUFACTURE   CONTINUED,  ETC. 

compounds.  Dyeing  thus  appears  to  be  altogether  a 
chemical  process,  and  to  require,  for  its  due  explana- 
tion and  practice,  an  acquaintance  with  the  properties 
of  the  elementary  bodies,  and  the  laws  which  regulate 
their  combinations. 

Bergmann  appears  to  have  been  the  first,  who  refer- 
red to  chemical  affinities  the  phenomena  of  dyeing. 
Having  plunged  wool  and  silk  into  two  separate  ves- 
sels, containing  solutions  of  indigo  in  sulphuric  acid, 
diluted  with  a  great  deal  of  water,  he  observed,  that 
the  wool  abstracted  much  of  the  coloring  matter,  and 
took  a  deep  blue  tint,  but  that  the  silk  was  hardly 
changed.  He  ascribed  this  difference  to  the  greater 
affinity  subsisting  between  the  particles  of  sulphate  of 
indigo  and  wool,  than  between  these  and  silk ;  and  he 
showed  that  the  affinity  of  the  wool  is  sufficiently  ener- 
getic, to  render  the  solution  colorless,  by  attracting  the 
whole  of  the  indigo,  while  that  of  the  silk  can  separate 
only  a  little  of  it.  He  thence  concluded,  that  dyes 
owed  both  their  permanence  and  their  depth  to  the 
intensity  of  that  attractive  force. 

We  have,  therefore,  to  consider,  in  dyeing,  the  play 
of  affinities,  between  the  liquid  medium,  in  which  the 
dye  is  dissolved,  and  the  fibrous  substance  to  be  dyed. 
When  wool  is  plunged  in  a  bath,  containing  cochineal, 
tartar,  and  salt  of  tin,  it  readily  assumes  a  beautiful 
scarlet  hue ;  but  when  cotton  is  subjected  to  the  same 
bath,  it  receives  only  a  feeble  pink  tinge.  Dufay  took 
a  piece  of  cloth,  woven  of  woollen  warp  and  cotton 
weft,  and  having  exposed  it  to  the  fulling-mill,  in  order 
that  both  kinds  of  fibres  might  receive  the  same  treat- 
ment, he  then  subjected  it  to  the  scarlet  dye  :  he  found 
that  the  woollen  threads  became  of  a  vivid  red,  while 
the  cotton  continued  white.  By  studying  these  differ- 
ences of  affinity,  and  by  varying  the  preparations  and 
processes,  with  the  same  or  different  dye-stufis,  we  may 
obtain  an  indefinite  variety  of  colors,  of  variable  solidity 
and  depth  of  shade. 

Dye-stuffs,  whether  of  vegetable   or  animal  origin. 


MORDANTS.  163 

though  susceptible  of  solution  in  water,  and,  in  this 
state,  of  penetrating  the  pores  of  fibrous  bodies,  seldom 
possess,  alone,  the  power  of  fixing  their  particles  so  dur- 
ably, as  to  be  capable  of  resisting  the  action  of  water, 
light,  and  air.  For  this  purpose,  they  require  to  be 
aided  by  another  class  of  bodies,  already  alluded  to, 
which  bodies  may  not  possess  any  color,  in  themselves, 
but  serve,  in  this  case,  merely  as  a  bond  of  union,  be- 
tween the  dye  and  the  substance  to  be  dyed.  These 
bodies  were  supposed,  in  the  infancy  of  the  art,  to  seize 
the  fibres,  by  an  agency  analogous  to  that  of  the  teeth 
of  animals,  and  were  hence  called  mordants,  from  the 
Latin  verb  mordere,  to  bite.  However  preposterous 
this  comparison  is  now  known  to  be,  the  term  derived 
from  it  has  gained  such  a  footing,  in  the  language  of 
the  dyer,  that  all  writers  upon  this  art  are  compelled  to 
adopt  it. 

Mordants  may  be  regarded,  in  general,  as  not  only 
fixing,  but  also  occasionally  modifying,  the  dye,  by 
forming  with  the  coloring  particles  an  insoluble  com- 
pound, which  is  deposited  within  the  textile  fibres. 
Such  dyes  as  are  capable  of  passing  from  the  soluble 
into  the  insoluble  state,  and  of  thus  becoming  perma- 
nent, without  the  addition  of  a  mordant,  have  been 
called  substantive,  and  all  the  others  have  been  called 
adjective,  colors.  Indigo  and  tannin  are  perhaps  the 
only  dyes,  of  organic  origin,  to  which  the  title  substan- 
tive can  be  applied  ;  and  even  they,  probably,  are  so 
altered  by  atmospheric  oxygen,  in  their  fixation  upon 
stuffs,  as  to  form  no  exception  to  the  true  theory  of 
mordants.  Mordants  are  of  primary  importance,  in 
dyeing ;  they  enable  us  to  vary  the  colors,  almost  in- 
definitely, with  the  same  dye  ;  to  increase  their  lustre, 
and  to  give  them  a  durability,  which  they  otherwise 
could  not  possess.  A  mordant  is  not  always  a  simple 
agent ;  but  in  the  mixture  of  which  it  consists,  various 
compounds  may  bo  formed,  so  that  the  substances  may 
not  act  directly,  but  through  a  series  of  transformations. 
Sometimes,  the  mordant  is  mixed  with  the  coloring  mat- 


164  CLOTH  MANUFACTURE   CONTINUED,   ETC. 

ters  ;  sometimes,  it  is  applied  by  itself,  first  of  all,  to  the 
stuff';  and  at  others,  both  these  methods  are  conjoined. 
We  may  dye,  successively,  with  liquors  which  contain 
the  same  substances,  which  will  act  differently,  accord- 
mg  to  the  different  mordants  employed.  One  solution 
will  give  up  its  base  to  the  stuff  only  when  aided  by 
heat ;  another  acts  better  and  more  uniformly,  when 
cold,  though  this  is  a  rarer  case. 

When  a  mordant  consists  of  a  changeable  metallic 
oxide,  as  of  iron  or  tin,  unless  great  nicety  be  used  in 
its  application,  either  no  effect,  or  an  injurious  one,  may 
be  produced  upon  the  dye.  All  these  circumstances 
prove  how  necessary  it  is  for  the  dyer  to  be  thoroughly 
versed  in  chemical  science.  Each  of  the  great  dye- 
works,  in  Alsace,  celebrated  for  the  beauty  and  fixity 
of  their  colors,  is  superintended,  in  the  laboratory-de- 
partment, by  a  gentleman,  who  has  studied  chemistry 
for  two  or  more  sessions  in  the  universities  of  Paris, 
or  some  other  eminent  schools.  The  numerous  com- 
plaints which  have  been  made  of  the  fugitiveness  of 
the  color  of  our  calicoes,  and  especially  of  our  cloth 
dyes,  ought  to  rivet  the  attention  of  all  great  manu- 
facturers and  merchants  on  this  important  desideratum, 
and  to  lead  them  to  supply  it,  by  consulting  qualified 
persons  as  to  the  best  means  of  improving  this  great 
branch  of  national  industry. 

4.  Calico  Printing. — This  is  the  art  of  impressing 
cotton  cloth  with  topical  dyes,  of  more  or  less  perma- 
nence. Of  late  years,  silk  and  woollen  fabrics  have  been 
made  the  subjects  of  a  similar  style  of  dyeing.  Linens 
were  formerly  stained  with  various  colored  designs,  but 
since  the  modern  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of 
cotton  cloth,  they  are  seldom  printed,  as  they  are  both 
dearer,  and  produce  less  beautiful  work,  because  flax 
possesses  less  affinity  than  cotton,  for  coloring  matters. 

The  principles  of  calico-printing  have  been  very 
profoundly  studied,  by  many  of  the  French  manufac- 
turers, who  generally  keep  a  chemist,  who  had  been  ed- 
ucated in  the  Parisian  schools  of  science,  constantly  at 


CALICO-PRINTING.  1G5 

work,  making  experiments  upon  colors,  in  a  wcll- 
furnislied  laboratory. 

Calicoes,  muslins,  &.C.,  intended  for  printing,  must 
be,  first  of  all,  freed  from  their  fibrous  down,  by  the 
action  of  the  singeing  machine.  This  consists  either 
of  a  semi-cylinder  of  cast-iron,  laid  horizontally,  and 
kept  at  a  bright  red  heat  by  a  furnace,  or  of  a  horizon- 
tal range  of  gas-jet  flames  :  over  one  of  these,  the  plane 
of  cloth  is  drawn,  with  a  steady  continuous  motion,  and 
at  a  rate  suited  to  its  texture.  When  gas  flames  are 
employed,  a  line  of  suction-tubes  is  placed  over  the  ex- 
tended web,  to  draw  the  flame  up  through  the  inter- 
stices of  the  cloth,  which  eflectually  cleans  the  threads. 
The  cotton  cloth  must  be  next  well  bleached,  because 
the  whiter  it  is,  the  more  light  will  it  reflect  from  its 
surface^,  and  the  more  brilliant  will  be  the  color  of  its 
dyes.  The  first  step  in  the  bleaching  process  is  boil- 
ing the  cloth  in  an  alkaline  bath,  which,  for  delicate,  fine 
goods,  consists  of  a  weak  solution  of  soda,  and  for 
stronger  articles,  a  mixture  of  slaked  lime  and  water. 

The  goods  are  next  steeped,  for  a  few  hours,  in  a 
leaden  or  wooden  cistern,  containing  a  weak  solution 
of  chloride  of  lime,  usually  called  bleaching  salt.  Tliey 
are  once  more  rinsed.  They  are  are  now  boiled  in  an 
alkaline  lie,  made  of  crude  soda  dissolved  in  water,  and 
freed  from  its  impurities  by  filtrations  or  subsidence. 
The  goods  are  again  rinsed,  and  finished  by  a  steep  in 
sulpimric  acid,  very  largely  diluted  with  water.  This 
removes  any  adhering  particles  of  lime  or  iron,  wliich 
would  be  apt  to  give  the  cloth,  after  some  time,  a  yel- 
low tint.  They  are  last  of  all  rinsed,  dried,  and  some- 
times smoothed  under  the  calender,  a  machine  composed 
of  rollers  and  beaters,  by  which  the  fibres  of  the  cloth 
are  thickened,  and  the  surface  is  both  smoothed  and 
polished. 

If  they  are  not  calendered,  they  are  run  through 
a  machine,  called  in  Lancashire  the  candroy,  which 
spreads  them  smoothly  in  the  act  of  rolling  them  upon 
a  cylinder. 


1(56  CLOTH  MANUFACTURE  CONTINUED,  ETC. 

There  are  four  mechanical  modes  of  printing  cali- 
coes ;  first,  by  small  wooden  blocks,  worked  by  hand ; 
second,  by  large  wooden  blocks,  set  in  a  frame,  and 
worked  by  a  machine  called  the  Pcrrotine,  from  the 
name  of  its  ingenious  inventor,  M.  Perrot,  of  Rouen ; 
third,  by  flat  copper  plates,  (a  method  now  nearly  ob- 
solete ;)  and  fourth,  by  copper  cylinders,  mounted  in  a 
machine  of  great  elegance  and  productive  powers,  but 
of  no  little  cost  and  complexity,  called  a  one,  two,  three, 
four,  or  five,  colored  calico-printing  machine,  according 
as  it  is  mounted  with  one,  two,  or  more,  cylinders.  The 
fifth  color  is  generally  applied,  by  what  is  called  a  sur- 
face-cylinder, covered  with  figures  like  types,  in  bas- 
relief. 

Calico-printing,  by  hand,  is  performed  by  applying 
tlie  face  of  the  block  to  a  piece  of  woollen-  cloth, 
stretched  over  one  end  of  a  sieve-hoop,  and  imbued 
with  the  coloring  matter,  of  a  thin  pasty  consistence, 
by  means  of  a  flat  brush.  The  block  is  then  applied  to 
the  surface  of  the  cotton  cloth,  while  extended  upon  a 
flat  table,  covered  with  a  blanket,  and  the  impression 
is  transferred  to  it  by  striking  the  back  of  the  block 
with  a  light  mallet.  This  method,  besides  the  great 
cost  of  labor  which  it  involves,  has  the  inconvenience 
of  causing  many  irregularities  in  the  execution  of  the 
work.  It  has  been  superseded,  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent, both  in  France  and  Belgium,  by  the  Perrotine,  a 
machine  of  a  most  novel  and  elegant  description. 
Three  thin  wooden  blocks,  engraved  in  relief,  about 
three  feet  long,  and  from  two  to  five  inches  broad,  are 
successively  brought  to  bear  on  three  of  the  four  faces 
of  a  prismatic  roller  of  iron,  round  which  the  cloth  is 
successively  wound.  Each  block  rests  on  springs, 
which  enable  it  to  press  with  the  delicacy  of  a  skilful 
arm ;  and  each  receives  its  peculiar  colored  paste  from 
a  woollen  surface  imbued  by  a  mechanical  brush  in 
rapid  alternation.  "  We  have  seen  this  machine,"  says 
Dr.  Ure,  "operate  in  many  print-works,  with  surprising 
speed  and  precision ;    its  moving  shaft   being  driven, 


CALICO  PRINTING.  167 

either  by  arms  or  by  a  steam  pulley-band.  One  man, 
with  three  children  for  superintending  the  three  colors, 
can  turn  oiV  about  thirty  pieces,  English,  in  a  day, 
which  is  the  work  of  fully  twenty  men  and  twenty  chil- 
dren in  ordinary  block-printing.  To  print  a  piece  of 
clotli  by  hand,  the  block  must  be  applied  four  hundred 
and  forty-eight  times,  for  each  color.  The  machine, 
moreover,  may  be  conducted  by  persons  with  little 
manual  dexterity,  and  therefore  entitled  to  compara- 
tively low  wages.  The  use  of  the  Perrotine  is  spread- 
ing rapidly  into  every  quarter  of  the  continent,  even 
into  Russia ;  though  hitherto  unknown  in  England.  It 
executes  a  style  of  work  different,  in  some  respects, 
from  that  of  the  cylinder.  Tiiis  latter  machine  is  a 
hollow  cylinder  of  copper,  fully  three  feet  long  and 
three  or  four  inches  in  diameter,  whose  surface  is  en- 
graved, not  by  the  hand-graver,  but  by  the  mechanical 
pressure  of  a  steel  roller,  from  one  to  two  inches  in  di- 
ameter, and  three  inches  long,  which  transfers  the  fig- 
ures engraved  on  it  to  the  relatively  softer  copper. 

"  The  engraved  cylinders  are  mounted  upon  a  strong 
iron  shaft,  or  arbor,  carrying  a  toothed  wheel  at  its  end, 
in  order  to  put  it  in  train  with  the  rotary  printing  ma- 
chine, for  one,  two,  or  more  colors.  On  a  roller,  at  the 
upper  part  of  this  apparatus,  are  wound  whole  calico 
webs,  stitched  together,  the  end  of  which  is  then  intro- 
duced between  the  engraved  copper  cylinder  and  a 
large  central  cylinder,  covered  with  a  blanket,  against 
which  it  is  made  to  bear,  with  regulated  pressure. 
The  engraved  cylinder  turns  on  the  top  of  another 
cylinder,  covered  with  woollen  cloth,  which  revolves 
with  tlic  former,  while  its  under  part  is  plunged  in  an 
oblong  trough  containing  the  dyeing  matter,  which  is 
of  a  pasty  consistence.  The  engraved  cylinder  is  thus 
supplied  with  an  abimdance  of  impressible  color,  and 
is  cleared  from  the  superfluity,  by  the  thin  edge  of  a  flat 
ruler,  made  of  bronze,  called  vulgarly  the  doctor,  (duc- 
tor,)  which  is  applied  obliquely  to  it,  with  a  gentle  force. 
The  cylinder,  after  its  escape  from  this  wiping  tool,  acts 


163  CLOTH  MANUFACTURE   CONTINUED,  ETC. 

upon  the  calico,  and  rolls  it  onwards,  with  its  revolution, 
imparting  its  figured  designs  with  great  precision." 

The  improvements  which  have  been  made,  within 
the  last  seventy-five  years,  in  the  manufacture  of  cloth, 
paper,  &-c.,  have  added,  in  an  almost  incredible  degree, 
to  the  physical  enjoyment  of  mankind.  Fabrics,  which 
were  previously  regarded  as  articles  of  luxury,  and 
worn  only  by  the  atfiuent,  now  make  part  of  the  ordi- 
nary vestments  of  the  poor.  The  calicoes  which  can  now 
be  purchased  at  six  or  seven  cents  a  yard,  would  proba- 
bly have  cost  fifty  cents,  seventy-five  years  ago  :  and  all 
other  cotton  goods  were  in  nearly  the  same  proportion. 
Then,  the  finer  kmds  of  these  goods  were  imported 
from  India,  where  they  were  manufactured,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  in  looms  of  the  rudest  construction, 
worked  by  hand.  Now,  the  raw  cotton  can  be  import- 
ed from  that  country,  made  up  into  goods,  in  the  man- 
ufactories of  our  own  State,  and  returned  again  to  Cal- 
cutta, paving  the  cost  of  manufacture  and  transporta- 
tion, for  fourteen  thousand  miles,  and  yet,  after  all,  be 
sold  cheaper  than  they  can  be  bought  of  the  Xative  man- 
ufacturer :  and  it  is  a  fact,  that,  even  in  India,  where 
labor  is  comparatively  so  very  cheap,  the  Native  weav- 
er is  driven  out  of  business,  by  the  competition  of  the 
English  and  American  manufacturers,  and  is  induced  to 
ffive  to  the  raisinsc  of  cotton  the  time  and  labor  which 
were  formerly  bestowed  on  spinning  and  weaving.  If 
such  be  the  eflx3ct  in  India,  how  much,  greater  must  it 
be  in  our  own  country,  where  the  manufactured  goods 
cannot  be  subjected  to  a  charge,  in  any  degree  so 
heavy,  for  transportation,  and  where  the  saving  of  hu- 
man labor  is  an  object  of  so  much  greater  importance. 
It  is  estimated  that  in  England,  owing  partly  to  the 
diminished  price  of  the  fabric  and  partly  to  the  increase 
of  wealth  which  has  been  produced  by  the  cotton  man- 
ufacture, thirty  persons  can  now  afford  to  wear  cotton, 
where  one  could  afford  it,  thirty  years  since.  The  in- 
creased consumption  in  this  country  is  probably  nearly 


CONCLUSION.  169 

as  great.  Persons,  wlio  can  remember  the  habits  of 
farmers  and  mechanics,  forty  years  ago,  assure  us,  that 
then,  cotton  was  very  rarely  worn  by  tliose  classes ; 
tiiat  shirting  was  generally  made  of  coarse  woolfcn,  or 
linen  of  domestic  manufacture, — an  article,  which  cost 
probably  twice  as  much  as  good  cotton  cloth  now  costs 
and  was  yet  of  very  indifferent  quality.  The  improve- 
ment has  not  been  less  rapid,  in  the  quality  and  quan- 
tity of  woollen  cloths.  A  few  years  since,  a  large  pro- 
portion of  all  the  woollen  worn  was  manufactured  in 
private  families,  at  great  cost,  and  still  was  very  coarse. 
Now,  no  family  can  afford  to  manufacture  ;  and  a  ma- 
terial, which,  thirty  years  since,  would  have  been  pur- 
chased only  by  a  gentleman  of  some  substance,  is  now 
within  the  means  of  the  humblest  mechanic  and  every- 
day laborer.*  Take  the  single  article  of  stockings, 
for  example.  It  is  but  three  or  four  centuries  since 
knit  hose  were  first  worn  at  all ;  and  even  one  hundred 
years  ago,  not  one  person  in  five  hundred  could  afford 

*Thc  amazing  rapidity  witli  which  the  production  and  consump- 
tion of  cotton  has  increased,  during  the  last  seventy  years,  will  be  ob- 
vious, from  tlie  following  facts  : 

1.  In  1770,  when  Arkwright's  improvements  began  to  be  first  in- 
troduced, the  annual  consumption  of  cotton  in  British  manufacture 
was  under  four  millions  of  pounds,  and  that  of  the  whole  of  Christen- 
dom was  probably  not  over  ten  millions.  In  1838,  the  consumption 
of  cotton  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  was  over  three  hundred  mil- 
lions of  pounds,  and  that  of  Europe  and  the  United  States  together, 
not  less  than  six  hundred  millions. 

2.  From  the  statements  of  a  writer  in  the  Boston  Daily  Advertiser, 
who  signs  himself  '  a  cotton  manufacturer,'  it  would  appear,  that 
the  above  falls  short  of  the  truth.  He  represents  the  cotton  raised 
in  the  United  States,  in  1820,  to  have  been  about  one  hundred  and 
thirty-six  millions  of  pounds  ;  in  1838,  six  hundred  and  eighty-six 
millions, — making  an  increase  of  fivefold,  in  eighteen  years.  The 
exports  of  cotton,  from  the  United  States,  for  the  same  years,  were, 
for  1820,  one  hundred  and  fifteen  millions  of  pounds  ;  for  1838,  six 
iiundred  and  two  millions  of  pounds. 

3.  According  to  the  same  writer,  the  consumption  of  cotton,  in 
1800,  in  Great  Britain,  was  fifty-two  millions  ;  in  1820,  it  was  one 
hundred  and  twenty-six  millions  ;  and  in  1837,  it  was  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty-seven  millions  ;  showing  that  the  increase  in  the  con- 
sumption, for  the  last  eighteen  or  twenty  years,  has  been  nearly 
three  times  as  great  as  in  the  preceding  period  of  that  duration. 

15  s.  A. 


170  THE  DOMESTIC  ARTS. 

to  wear  them.  But  since  the  stocking-frame  was  m 
vented,  the  article  has  been  produced  by  machinery, 
and  now  few  persons  are  without  them.  What  more 
certain  sign  is  there,  of  abject  poverty  and  wretched- 
ness, than  to  see  an  individual  in  Winter  without  a 
pair  of  stockings ! 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE    DOMESTIC    ARTS. 

Under  this  title,  we  shall  include  the  various  meth 
ods  of  preparing  and  preserving  human  food.  This 
food  is  rarely  produced,  by  Nature,  in  that  state  in 
which  it  is  most  agreeable  or  beneficial  to  the  human 
system.  In  order  to  be  brought  into  this  state,  animal 
and  vegetable  substances  are  subjected  to  several  differ- 
ent processes,  which  serve  to  soften  their  solid  fibres,  to 
extract  or  dissolve  their  nutritive  or  exhilarating  princi- 
ples, and  in  some  cases  to  effect  an  entire  change  in 
their  chemical  constitution.  It  isd:o  be  observed,  too, 
that  these  substances  are  no  sooner  deprived  of  life,  than 
they  tend  to  decompose,  owing,  in  part,  to  the  strong  af- 
finity which  subsists  between  their  constituent  elements, 
and  which  inclines  them  to  quit  the  state  of  combina- 
tion in  which  they  previously  existed,  and  to  form  new 
combinations.  To  the  spontaneous  changes,  which  are 
thus  produced,  we  give,  in  the  case  of  vegetables,  the 
name  of  fermentation  ;  in  the  case  of  animal  substances, 
we  call  it  putrefaction :  and,  as  it  is  apt  to  render  a 
substance  useless,  it  is  evidently  very  important,  that 
the  housekeeper  should  know  how  to  anticipate  and 
prevent  it.  Hence,  this  subject  will  lead  us  to  treat  of 
methods  for  preserving,  as  well  as  preparing,  articles 
intended  for  food.  There  are  other  cases,  however,  in 
which  fermentation  may  be  turned  to  a  very  useful  ac- 
count, as  in  the  manufacture  of  bread,  beer,  cider,  wine, 


DIVISION  OF  SUBJECT.  171 

&c. ;  processes  which  depend  almost  entirely  on  the 
proper  management  of  fermentation.  We  shall  take 
occasion,  therefore,  to  give  a  brief  account  of  the  prin- 
ciples on  which  these  processes  depend.  We  are  aware, 
tiiat  some  of  them,  sucli,  for  example,  as  the  making  of 
wine,  have  almost  ceased  to  be  domestic ;  but,  as  our 
object  is  chiefly  to  exhibit  principles,  we  may  associate 
the  arts  according  to  their  agreement  in  tliis  respect, 
and  shall  therefore  treat,  in  this  Chapter, 

I.  Of  tlie  various  arts  most  intimately  connected  with 
fermentation,  namely,  bread-making,  brewing,  wine 
and  cider  making. 

II.  Of  the  management  of  heat,  in  distillation,  and 
i7i  the  culinary  processes. 

III.  Of  the  management  of  milk,  and  the  making 
of  butter  and  cheese. 

IV.  Oi preserving  animal  and  vegetable  substances. 
It  is  obvious,  that  all  these  are  chemical  arts,  and  it 

will  be  our  principal  business,  in  this  Chapter,  to  exhibit 
the  practical  applications  of  that  science.  Various  me- 
chanical contrivances  have  been  adopted  for  savi7ig  la- 
bor and  time,*  and  also  for  improving  the  products  of 

*  One  instance  of  such  contrivance  may  be  seen  in  the  machinery 
for  making  ship  biscuit.  The  process  adopted  in  the  victualling  yard 
at  Gosport,  (England,)  is  said  to  be  as  follows  : 

1.  The  meal  and  water  are  mi.rcrf,  by  being  placed  in  a  revolving 
cylinder,  working  horizontally,  and  having  its  shaft  armed  with  knives. 
Tiie  shaft  being  set  in  motion,  the  knives  turn  around  through  the 
meal  and  water,  the  dough  soon  begins  to  assume  a  consistency,  and 
in  two  minutes,  five  hundred  pounds  will  be  completely  manufactured. 

2.  The  dough  falls  into  a  trough,  from  which  it  is  easily  removed, 
and  placed  under  the  breaking  rollers,  to  undergo  the  second  opera- 
tion, that  is,  kncarling;.  These  breaking  rollers,  two  in  number,  and 
weighing  fifteen  hundred  pounds  each,  pass  backwards  and  forwards, 
over  the  dough,  during  the  space  of  five  minutes,  when  it  will  be 
brought  to  a  perfect  and  equal  consistency. 

3.  From  the  breaking  rollers,  the  dough  is  cut  into  pieces,  eighteen 
inches  square,  and  placed  on  boards,  which  are  conveyed,  by  friction 
rollers,  under  a  second  set  of  rollers,  to  be  rolled  to  the  required 
thickness. 

-I.  Being  rolled,  the  dough  is  carried  under  the  cutting  and  stamp- 
ing plate,  which,  at  the  same  moment,  cuts  and  docks,  or  pierces, 
the  sheet  of  dough  into  forty-two  six-sided  biscuits,  and  these  are 
then  conveyed  on  carriages  to  the  oven. 


172  THE  DOMESTIC   ARTS. 

these  arts.  But  on  these,  we  shall  be  able  to  bestow 
only  a  passing  notice. 

I.  Fermentation. — There  are  two  kinds  of  fermen- 
tation.* to  be  attended  to  in  the  arts,  called  vinous  and 
acetous  fermentation  ;  so  called,  because  alcohol  is  pro- 
duced in  the  first  case,  and  acetic  acid,  or  vinegar,  in 
the  second.  It  is  found,  by  experience,  that  the  vinous 
fermentation,  if  carried  too  far,  passes  into  the  acetous  ; 
and  much  of  the  art,  therefore,  of  the  baker,  breiuer, 
and  winemaker.  consists  in  arresting  the  process  at  the 
proper  point. 

1.  Vinous  fermentation  takes  place  in  saccharine 
substances,  or  those  which  have  sugar  as  an  ingredient, 
and  seems  to  consist  in  changing  the  sugar  into  alcohol 
and  carbonic  acid.  This  is  the  case  in  raising  or  work- 
ing bread,  where  the  saccharine  matter  of  the  flour  is 
resolved  into  alcohol,  which  is  carried  ofi^  in  baking,  and 
into  carbonic  acid  gas,  which,  being  prevented  from  es- 
caping, by  the  tenacity  of  the  dough,  heaves  and  swells 
it,  and  gives  it  a  porous  consistency.  We  see  the  vinous 
fermentation,  again,  in  the  brewing  of  summer  beer, 
where  a  mixture  of  molasses  or  honey  with  water  is  fer- 
mented by  means  of  yeast,  or  some  other  leaven,  and  a 
particular  flavor  imparted  to  it  by  spruce,  ginger,  &c. 

Formerly,  all  these  operations  had  to  be  performed  by  hand,  the 
expense  being  nearly  four  times  as  great,  and  the  process  much  less 
clean  and  perfect.  Biscuit  mixed  and  cut  by  hand  is  unequally  bak- 
ed, because  the  meal  and  water  do  not  combine  thoroughly,  and  also 
because  the  biscuits  are  of  unequal  thickness.  Hence  it  becomes 
what  is  termed /?(H^i/. 

A  very  ingenious  njachine  for  making  biscuit  has  been  invented 
by  Mr.  John  Bruce,  of  the  city  of  New  York.  It  turns  oiF  about  ten 
hundred  weight  per  hour. 

*  Strictly  speaking,  there  are^^re  species  of  fermentation,  1.  Sac- 
charine, in  which  starch  and  gum  are  changed  into  sugar  ;  this  pre- 
cedes the  vinous  fermentation.  2.  Vinous,  in  which  sugar  is  con- 
verted into  alcohol.  3.  ^Mucilaginous,  in  which  sugar  is  converted 
into  slime,  instead  of  alcohol.  4.  ^icefoi/s,  producing  vinegar.  5.  Pu- 
trefactive. In  all  cases,  fermentation  involves  the  decomposition  of 
Khe  proximate  principles  (sugar,  starch,  gluten,  &c.)  of  organic  bod- 
teg,  and  a  new  combination  of  the  oxygen,  carbon,  hydrogen,  (and 
in  somn  cases  nitrogen,)  which  form  their  ultimate  principles. 


MALT-LIQ.UORS. WINE,  ETC.  173 

1  he  liveliness  of  the  beer  is  owing  to  the  carbonic  acid 
generated  by  fermentation. 

Wc  see  the  vinous  fermentation,  also,  in  brewing  the 
malt-liquors,  such  as  ale,  porter,  etc.  Here,  a  liquid, 
called  ivort,  which  is  produced  by  boiling  hops,  in  a  de- 
coction of  malt,  is  fermented,  by  the  addition  of  yeast. 
The  hops  have  the  effect,  not  only  of  imparting  a  bitter 
aromatic  taste  to  the  liquor,  but  also  of  preventing  the 
disposition,  which  previously  existed,  to  acetous  fer- 
mentation. It  may  be  proper  to  add,  that  7nalt  is  grain 
which  has  been  made  to  germinate  by  the  artificial  use 
of  heat  and  water,  the  germination  being  arrested,  as 
soon  as  the  starch  of  the  grain  has  been  converted,  by 
saccharine  fermentation,  into  starch-sugar,  and  is  thus 
fitted  to  produce  a  sweet  liquid.  Owing  to  the  muci- 
laginous and  extractive  matters  which  are  contained  in 
malt  liquors,  they  are  greatly  disposed  to  pass  into  the 
acetous  fermentation,  and  are  therefore  kept  with  diffi 
culty. 

In  these  cases,  it  will  be  observed,  that  the  process 
of  fermenting  is  not  spontaneous,  but  must  be  excited 
by  yeast.*  How  this  substance  produces  the  efiect,  is 
not  well  known.  There  are  other  cases,  where  fer- 
mentation takes  place  of  itself,  as  in  the  manufacture 
of  wine  and  cider.  The  saccharine  juices  of  plants 
seem  to  possess  some  principle,  which,  by  being  expos- 
ed to  the  air,  is  converted  into  yeast,  or  at  least  ac- 
quires the  characteristic  property  of  that  substance,  by 
absorbing  oxygen. 

Wine  is  obtained  from  the  juice  of  the  grape,  currant, 
gooseberry,  &c.  The  grape  is  superior  to  all  other 
fruits,  for  this  purpose ;  not  merely  because  it  contains 
more  saccharine  matter,  since  that  deficiency  might  be 
supplied  by  adding  sugar,  but  on  account  of  the  nature 

*  Bread  is  frequently  raised,  in  our  newly-settled  districts,  by  a 
mixture  ofsalt  and  warm  water,  with  a  small  portion  of  flour.  This 
composition  must  be  kept  standing,  two  or  three  hours,  at  the  temper- 
ature of  tepid  water,  and  is  then  applied  to  the  flour.  New  milk 
from  the  cow  may  be  used  instead  of  the  water. 

15* 


174  THE  DOJIESTIC  ART£. 

of  its  acid.  The  chief,  if  not  the  only,  acid  principle 
in  the  ripe  grape,  when  raised  in  a  warm  climate,  is  the 
bitartrate  of  potassa.  But  it  so  happens,  that  this  sub- 
stance is  insoluble  in  the  alcohol  generated  by  vinous 
fermentation,  and  is  therefore  deposited,  either  during 
that  process,  or  subsequently,  while  the  wine  is  ad- 
vancing towards  perfection,  and  hence  the  crust  which 
we  find  on  the  inside  of  bottles  which  have  held  old 
wine.  The  juices  of  other  fruits,  on  the  contrary,  con- 
tain the  malic  and  citric  acids,  which  are  soluble  both  in 
water  and  alcohol,  and  of  which,  therefore,  they  can 
never  be  deprived.  Consequently,  the  wine  made  of 
these  juices  (and  the  remark  applies  to  cider)  are  only 
rendered  palatable,  by  the  presence  of  free  sugar,  which 
conceals  the  taste  of  the  acid  ;  and  to  obtain  this,  it  is 
necessary  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  fermentation, 
long  before  the  whole  of  the  saccharine  matter  is  con- 
sumed. For  the  same  reason,  these  wines  do  not  admit 
of  being  kept  long ;  since,  as  soon  as  the  free  sugar  is 
converted  into  alcohol,  by  the  slow  fermentative  process, 
(which,  though  it  may  be  retarded,  by  the  addition  of 
brandy,  cannot  be  entirely  prevented.)  the  wine  ac- 
quires a  strong  sour  taste. 

2.  Acetous  fermentation  generally  follows  that  which 
is  vinous  :  and  in  that  case,  seems  to  consist  in  chang- 
ing alcohol  into  acetic  acid  or  vinegar.  It  takes  place 
most  rapidly  at  a  temperature  above  seventy  degrees  of 
Fahrenheit's  thermometer,  and  is  promoted  by  contact 
with  the  air,  and  by  moisture.  Hence,  if  it  is  to  be 
prevented,  as  in  making  wine,  cider,  &c.,  the  liquid 
should  be  kept  cool,  and  be  excluded  from  air.  It  is 
important  to  remember,  that  the  vinous  is  always  apt  to 
pass  into  the  acetous  fermentation ;  and  that,  to  avoid 
this,  requires  the  closest  attention  on  the  part  of  the 
manufacturer.* 

*  In  making  vinegar,  our  object  is  to  excite  the  acetous  fermenta 
tion.  This  is  effected,  by  exposing  the  wine,  cider,  or  beer,  used  for 
the  purpose,  in  an  open  vessel,  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  in  Summer,  or 
10  that  of  a  stove,  in  Winter.     Some  substance,  calculated  to  assist 


ACETOUS  FERMENTATION.  175 

To  assist  in  preventing  acetous  fermentation,  the 
manufacturer  of  wine  sometimes  fumigates  his  casks, 
by  kindUng  linen  rags,  clipped  in  melted  brimstone,  and 
allowing  the  vapor  to  enter  the  cask.  The  effect  is,  to 
confine  the  fixed  air  contained  in  the  wine  or  cider, 
and  to  stop  its  fermentation.  When  once  the  acetous 
fermentation  begins,  however,  it  is  impossible  to  restore 
the  wine  to  its  original  state ;  and  hence  the  various 
methods  which  have  been  devised,  to  conceal  the  acid 
in  wine,  so  that  they,  who  have  not  an  accurate  judge- 
ment in  such  matters,  not  unfrequently  purchase  sweet- 
ened vinegar,  in  lieu  of  wine.  Nor  is  this  the  greatest 
evil  of  such  adulterations.  One  of  the  substances,  most 
commonly  employed  for  the  purpose,  is  sugar  of  lead, 
which,  though  it  stops  fermentation,  and  imparts  a 
sweet  taste  to  sour  wine,  is  an  active  poison,  and,  when 
combined  with  wine,  frequently  occasions  colic,  and 
other  diseases.  The  adulteration  of  wine  is  practis- 
ed so  extensively,  that  those  who  have  investigated 
the  subject  assure  us,  that,  where  one  gallon  of  pure 
wine  is  consumed  in  this  country,  ten  or  more,  that 
have  been  fabricated  in  our  seaports  and  other  places, 
are  used.  Frauds,  committed  in  the  adulteration  of 
spirit  and  wine,  in  the  city  of  New  York  alone,  amount, 

fermentation,  is  also  added,  such  as  yeast,  a  piece  of  dough,  or  the 
coagulated  ropy  mucilage  found  in  old  vinegar,  and  which  is  gener- 
ally called  the  mother  of  vinegar.  In  making  vinegar  from  wine  and 
malt,  the  lees,  or  refuse,  of  wine  is  also  used,  to  promote  fermenta- 
tion. Vinegar  may  also  be  obtained  from  wood,  (when  it  is  called 
pyroligneous  acid,)  from  whiskey,  and  from  sugar,  or  molasses. 
To  obtain  it  from  sugar,  the  following  method  is  taken.  Ten  pounds 
of  sugar  are  added  to  eight  gallons  of  water,  with  yeast,  and  raisins  or 
grape  cuttings,  for  the  sake  of  flavor,  and  perhaps  to  assist  in  the 
fermentation.  Twelve  pints  of  bruised  gooseberries,  or  other  fruits, 
are  added  ;  and,  by  a  proc"es3  similar  to  that  for  cider,  a  good  vine- 
gar is  produced  in  the  course  of  the  summer.  Vinegar  is  frequently 
adulterated,  by  having  sulphuric  acid  mixed  with  it,  in  order  to  in- 
crease its  acidity  ;  and  also  by  the  addition  of  copper  and  lead.  The 
adulteration  may  be  detected  by  adding  a  little  chalk,  which,  uniting 
with  the  sulphuric  acid,  will  form  a  white  insoluble  powder  ;  or  by 
employing  ammonia,  when  we  suspect  copper  ;  or  sulphate  of  soda 
when  we  suspect  lead. 


176  THE  DOMESTIC   ARTS. 

it  is  supposed,  to  at  least  three  millions  of  dollars,  an- 
nually. On  the  arrival  of  a  cargo  of  wine*  in  thai 
city,  it  is  often  purchased  up.  at  once,  by  the  manu- 
facturer, and  in  less  than  twenty-four  hours  its  char- 
acter is  completely  changed.  It  is  poured  into  large 
vats,  prepared  on  extensive  premises,  is  mixed  with 
sour  beer,  (most  of  the  sour  beer  in  our  cities  is  drank 
by  some  one  in  this  shape.)  with  cider,  and  certain  pro- 
portions of  certain  drugs.  In  this  way,  by  due  mix- 
tures, the  same  fountain  is  made  to  send  forth,  at  one 
time,  Madeira ;  at  another.  Port :  at  another.  Sherry, 
&c.  To  conceal  the  fraud  more  effectually,  casks  and 
bottles,  bearing  the  original  importing  or  customhouse 
mark,  are  bought  at  a  price  many  times  that  of  their 
real  value,  and,  after  being  emptied  of  their  contents, 
return  to  the  manufacturer,  and  are  thus  made  to  per- 
form the  work  of  being  accessary  to  fraud,  many  limes. 
These  facts,  received  from  individuals  who  have  been 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  and  vending  of  factitious 
wines,  show  how  applicable  to  New  York,  and  other 
American  cities,  at  this  time,  are  the  remarks  made  by 
Addison,  respecting  London,  more  than  a  century  since. 

•'•'There  are,"  says  lie.f  '-in  this  city,  a  fraternity  of 
chemical  operators,  who  work  under  ground,  in  holes, 
caverns,  and  dark  retirements,  to  conceal  their  mys- 
teries from  the  observation  of  mankind.  These  sub- 
terranean philosophers  are  daily  employed  in  the  trans- 
mutation of  liquors  :  and,  by  the  power  of  magical 
drugs  and  incantations,  raising,  under  the  streets  of 
London  the  choicest  products  of  the  hills  and  valleys 
of  France.  They  can  squeeze  claret  out  of  the  sloe,  and 
draw  champaigne  from  an  apple." 

II.  We  now  come  to  heat,  as  employed  in  distilla- 
tion and  in  cuUjiary  processes. 

*  This  wine  is  often  adulterated  or  fabricated,  before  it  leaves  its 
native  land.  Large  manufactories  for  the  fabrication  of  counterfeit 
wine  exist  in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  a  comparison  of  the  produce 
of  the  vineyards  with  the  quantity  of  wine  exported  shows  that  not 
a  small  proportion  of  the  latter  must  be  factitious. 

tTatler,  Xo.  131. 


DISTILLATION.  177 

1.  Distillation. — This  art  is  founded  on  the  dif- 
ferent tendencies  which  bodies  liave  to  pass  into  vapor, 
and  to  be  condensed  again  by  cold.  It  is  employed  in 
order  to  separate  the  more  volatile  substances,  such  as 
alcohol,  the  essences,  essential  oils,  &c.,  from  other 
substances  with  which  they  are  combined.  This  is 
accomplished,  by  applying  heat  to  the  compound,  so 
regulated,  that  the  volatile  liquid  will  rise  in  vapor, 
leaving  the  other  in  a  liquid  state  ;  and  this  vapor  is 
then  condensed,  by  passing  through  a  worm,  immersed 
in  cold  water.  Sometimes  the  operation  is  conducted 
in  a  vessel,  from  which  the  air  has  been  expelled  ;  and 
in  that  case,  as  fluids  boil  in  a  vacuum,  at  a  tempera- 
ture much  below  that  at  which  they  boil  in  the  air,  the 
extract  is  obtained  in  its  most  perfect  state. 

In  the  case  of  the  essential  oils,  water  is  put  into  the 
still,  along  with  the  plant,  in  order  to  prevent  the  latter 
from  being  burned.  The  oil  and  water  both  pass  over 
into  the  receiver,  and  the  oil  collects  at  the  top  or  bot- 
tom of  the  water,  according  to  its  density.  Tliese  oils 
are  very  useful,  as  solvents  in  the  arts,  and  as  medicines. 
In  these  respects  they  might  often  be  advantageously 
substituted  for  alcohol,  which,  unfortunately  for  the 
world,  has  enjoyed  much  more  repute  than  it  deserves. 
It  is  doubtless  useful  in  some  chemical  and  pharmaceuti- 
cal processes,  and  affords  a  very  convenient  solvent  for 
resins,  balsams,  and  the  vegetable  alkaline  principles.  It 
is  certain,  however,  that  on  many  occasions,  when  we 
now  resort  to  it,  the  essential  oils,  or  some  other  substi- 
tute, might  subserve  the  same  purpose.  A  distinguished 
physician,  when  speaking  of  its  use,  as  a  medicine  and 
as  a  beverage,  says,  "  But  if  useless  as  a  preventive,  is 
not  alcohol  important  in  the  treatment  of  disease  ?  I 
admit  that  it  is  sometimes  convenient ;  but  I  deny  that 
it  is  essential  to  the  practice  of  physic  or  surgery.  Do 
we  wish  to  rekindle  the  taj)er  of  life,  as  it  glimmers  in 
a  fainting  fit ;  we  have  ammonia,  and  the  volatile  oils  ; 
and,  what  is  better  than  every  thing  else,  cold  water,  to 
be  administered  by  affusion.     Is  it  required  to  produce 


178  THE  DOMESTIC  ARTS. 

a  tonic  effect,  in  the  case  of  long-standing  debility  ?  the 
tonic  roots,  and  barks,  and  woods,  impart  their  invig- 
orating properties  to  water  and  acid.  Are  we  called 
upon  to  relieve  pain  ?  opium  is  altogether  superior  to 
alcohol.  Do  we  need  a  solvent  for  opium  ?  we  have  it 
in  the  acetous  acid.  The  black  drop  is  one  of  the  best 
solutions  of  opium  ever  invented. 

"But  what  is  to  be  done  with  the  medicinal  resins 
and  aromatic  oils, — must  not  they  be  dissolved  in  al- 
cohol ?  The  medicinal  resins  do  not  constitute  a  very 
important  class  of  remedies  ;  but  they  may  be  given  in 
fine  powder,  rubbed  with  some  inert  friable  substance, 
or  dissolved  in  an  essential  oil,  or  made  into  an  emul- 
sion. The  ordinary  mode  of  using  them  does  not 
carry  them  into  the  stomach  in  the  state  of  solution,  as 
they  are  instantly  precipitated,  in  a  flocculent  form,  on 
being  thrown  into  water.  As  for  the  aromatic  oils, 
they  may  be  given  in  the  form  of  liquid  soap,  or  emul- 
sion, rubbed  with  alkali,  or  sugar  and  water;  and  in  this 
way  they  exert  their  specific  effects. 

"Is  the  physician  required  to  prescribe  a  restorative? 
if  quinine  and  bark,  and  bitters  and  metallic  tonics,  will 
not  do,  shall  he  prescribe  alcohol  ?  This  is  never  cer- 
tain, and  always  unsafe,  inasmuch  as  there  is  imminent 
danger  of  a  permanent  relish  being  acquired  for  it ;  nor 
does  it  compare,  in  its  restorative  powers,  in  cases 
where  the  complaint  was  not  produced  or  modified  by 
the  previous  use  of  it,  with  the  pure  fermented  and  well 
preserved  juices  of  the  grape  and  the  apple.  The  fac- 
titious wines,  extensively  vended  in  our  country,  are 
poor  restoratives  ;  they  contain  a  large  proportion  of 
alcohol. 

"  I  maintain,  then,  that,  taking  into  view  tlie  danger 
of  making  tipplers,  by  giving  ardent  spirit  to  the  sick, 
and  considering  that  all  its  medicinal  virtues  are  found 
in  other  articles,  mankind  would  not,  on  the  whole,  be 
losers,  if  it  should  be  banished,  not  only  from  the  houses 
of  every  class  of  the  community,  but  also  from  the  sliops 
of  the  apothecary. 


CULINARY  PROCESSES.  179 

"What  is  the  secret  of  the  witchery,  which  strong 
drink  exerts  over  the  whole  man  ?  I  will  try  to  tell 
you.  After  being  received  into  the  stomach,  it  is 
sucked  up  by  absorbent  vessels,  is  carried  into  the 
blood,  and  circulates  through  the  alimentary  organs, 
through  the  lungs,  muscles,  and  brain,  and  doubtless 
through  every  organ  of  the  body.  Not  a  bloodvessel, 
liowever  minute,  not  a  thread  of  nerve,  in  the  whole 
animal  machine,  escapes  its  influence.  What  is  the 
nature  of  this  influence  ?  It  disturbs  the  functions  of 
life ;  it  increases,  for  a  time,  the  action  of  living  organs, 
but  lessens  the  power  of  that  action  ;  hence  the  deep 
depression  and  collapse  which  follow  preternatural  ex- 
citement. By  habitual  use,  it  renders  the  living  fibres 
less  and  less  susceptible  to  the  healthy  operation  of  un- 
stimulating  food  and  drink,  its  exciting  influences  soon 
become  incorporated  with  all  the  living  actions  of  the 
body  ;  and  the  diurnal  sensations  of  hunger,  thirst,  and 
exhaustion,  are  strongly  associated  with  the  recollection 
of  its  exhilarating  eftects,  and  thus  bring  along  with 
them  the  resistless  desire  for  its  repetition." 

2.  Culinary  Processes. — The  preparation  of  vege- 
table and  animal  food  depends  almost  entirely  upon 
tiic  proper  management  of  heat.  It  is  applied  in  two 
principal  ways  ;  first,  tlirough  water,  for  the  purpose  of 
extracting  from  vegetable  and  animal  substances  their 
nutritive  or  exhilarating  principles.  We  have  examples 
of  this,  in  the  making  of  tea,  coffee,  soups,  &c.  Hot 
liquids  arc  much  more  powerful  solvents  tlian  cold 
ones ;  and  hence,  by  boiling  a  substance  in  water,  its 
soluble  parts  will  be  extracted  and  mixed  with  the  fluid. 
In  conducting  this  operation,  two  things  require  spe- 
cial attention  ;  first,  the  quality  of  the  water,  which  is 
often  mixed  v/ith  foreign  substances,  such  as  lime  and 
calcareous  salts.  These  render  water  hard,  and  may 
be  precipitated  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  either  by 
boiling,  before  we  use  the  water,  or,  more  perfectly,  by 
adding  a  little  soda  or  potash.  This  effect  of  boiling 
explains  why  tea-kettles  and  boilers  are  so  frequently 


180  THE  DOMESTIC   ARTS. 

incrusted  on  the  inside.  The  quahty  of  the  water 
may  be  ascertained,  before  using  it,  by  adding  soda  or 
potash.  If  it  be  impure,  it  will  become  turbid,  and  a 
white  powder  will  be  precipitated. 

The  second  thing  to  be  attended  to,  in  boiling,  is 
the  A'essel.  As  it  is  an  object  to  secure  a  high  heat, 
the  vessel  should  be  so  constructed,  as,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  conduct  the  heat  rapidly  from  the  fire  to  the 
fluid  within,  and  on  the  other  hand,  to  prevent  its 
escape  at  the  sides  and  top.  This  is  effected,  in  part, 
by  having  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  black  and  rough, 
since  such  surfaces  absorb  heat  more  readily  than 
those  which  are  smooth  and  light  colored.  On  the 
same  principle,  the  top  and  sides  should  be  polished, 
and  of  lighter  color.  It  is  also  important,  if  we  would 
maintain  a  high  temperature,  at  the  least  expense  of 
fuel,  to  keep  the  vessel  closely  shut,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  heat  by  radiation  and  conduction,  and 
also,  (since  steam  forms  at  two  hundred  and  twelve 
degrees  Fahrenheit,)  in  order  to  prevent  steam  from 
passing  off'  through  the  spout  or  top,  and  thus  occasion- 
ing a  waste  of  heat.  On  this  account,  a  vessel  has 
been  constructed,  for  the  special  purpose  of  preventing 
such  escape  of  heat.  It  is  called  Papin's  digester.  The 
top  and  sides  are  surrounded  with  a  non-conducting 
substance ;  the  vessel  is  kept  perfectly  closed,  and  the 
temperature  of  the  contained  fluid  is  often  four  hundred 
degrees.  It  has  been  found  sufficient  to  dissolve  ani- 
mal bones,  and  is  used  in  extracting  from  them  the 
gelatin  which  forms  the  principal  material  in  the  porta- 
ble soup,  which  is  taken  on  long  voyages,  &c.  Boil- 
ing is  used  not  only  to  extract  the  soluble  parts  of  veg- 
etable and  animal  substances,  but  also  to  fit  these  sub- 
stances themselves  for  becoming  food.  The  precise 
change  which  it  effects  is  but  imperfectly  understood. 
We  know  that  vegetables,  such  as  potatoes,  &c.,  which, 
before  boiling,  are  watery,  ill-flavored,  and  extremely 
indigestible,  are  rendered,  by  this  process,  dry,  farina- 
ceous, and  very  digestible  ;   and  it  is  pretty  well  ascer 


MANAGEMENT  OF  MILK.  181 

tained  that  this  change  consists,  not  merely  in  the  soft- 
ening of  the  fibres,  the  solution  of  some  and  the  coag- 
ulation of  others,  of  their  juices  and  principles,  but  that 
these  principles  are  decomposed,  and  combined  anew, 
so  that  they  are  no  longer  distinguishable  by  the  forms 
and  properties  which  tiiey  previously  possessed. 

This  remark  applies,  also,  to  the  changes  produced 
by  dry-heat,  on  vegetable  and  animal  substances.  Bread, 
for  example,  by  being  baked,  is  not  only  rendered  light- 
er, by  the  expansion  of  the  gas  contained  in  the  paste, 
but  its  constituent  principles  are  so  completely  changed, 
that,  on  analyzing  it,  tiie  proximate  ingredients  of  the 
flour  arc  no  longer  to  be  found.  So  in  the  roasting 
and  baking  of  fruits,  we  sometimes  find  acid  destroy- 
ed, saccharine  matter  formed,  mucilage  and  gelly  ex- 
tracted, or  combined  anew,  so  that  tiie  product  exhibits 
properties  very  ditierent  from  those  of  the  raw  material. 
The  same  is  true  of  meats.  When  baked  or  stewed, 
the  jelly,  oil,  and  albumen,  are  separated,  dissolved, 
mixed,  or  combined  anew;  Perhaps  the  simplest  form 
of  preparing  meat  is  by  roasting.  Here,  some  chang- 
es, both  of  texture  and  composition,  take  place,  but  not 
so  great,  but  that  we  can  still  detect,  on  analysis,  many 
of  its  original  properties. 

Before  leaving  the  culinary  2irocesses,  it  might  seem 
proper  to  advert  to  various  spices  and  condiments,  which 
are  employed  in  giving  flavor  to  food.  To  the  influence 
which  tiiey  exert,  in  preventing  decay,  we  shall  refer 
ucreafter.  The  manner  in  which  their  flavor  is  extract- 
ed, by  heat  and  by  fluids,  must  be  sufficiently  obvious. 
We  proceed  to  consider, 

.3.  The  Management  of  Milk. — If  milk  be  allowed 
to  stand,  it  will  separate  into  three  distinct  parts,  of 
which  it  is  composed.  The  cream,  being  the  lightest, 
rises  to  the  top,  and  the  remainder,  soon  becoming  sour, 
will  be  resolved  into  a  solid  coagulum,  called  curd,  and 
a  limpid  fluid,  which  is  whey.  Tiie  separation  of  the 
curd  from  the  whey  may  be  produced  artificially,  by  an 
acid ;  or  by  means  of  rennet,  which  is  an  infusion  of  the 
16  ^.  ^. 


182  THE  DOMESTIC  ARTS. 

inner  coat  of  a  calfs  stomach :  the  effect  being  due,  in 
the  latter  case,  to  the  gastric  juice  of  the  stomach.  This 
is  the  course  taken  in  making  cheese.  In  order  to  make 
the  best  cheese,  milk,  which  has  stood  a  sufficient  time, 
but  has  not  been  deprived  of  its  cream,  is  heated  very 
gradually,  till  it  reaches  the  temperature  at  whicii  it 
curdles  ;  the  rennet  is  then  added  ;  the  curd  is  cut  into 
small  slices,  and  the  whey  gently  removed,  by  suspend- 
ing the  whole  mass  in  a  bag.  In  this  vray,  the  cream 
is  retained,  and  the  flavor  and  richness  of  the  cheese 
much  improved.  If  the  coagulation  takes  place  sud- 
denly, owing  to  too  much  heat,  and  the  whey  is  speed- 
ily removed,  most  of  the  cream  is  carried  off,  and  the 
cheese  is  poor,  and  witiiout  flavor.  To  make  poor 
cheese  is  easy ;  but  to  make  good  cheese  is  altogether 
the  most  difficult  operation  which  devolves  on  the  house- 
wife. It  requires  a  proper  regulation  of  the  tempera- 
ture of  a  dairv,  since  too  much  heat  causes  the  milk  to 
sour,  and  too  little  interferes  with  the  process  of  curd- 
ling. It  requires,  also,  the  selection  of  proper  utensils, 
and  the  most  scrupulous  care  in  cleansing  them.  The 
acid  contained  in  milk  (and  which  is  now  known  to  bo 
lactic  acid)  will  act  upon  copper,  brass,  or  lead,  and 
even  upon  earthen  vessels,  if  they  have  been  glazed 
with  lead,  producing  a  poisonous  compound.  Hence, 
vessels  made  of  these  materials  should  never.be  used  for 
holding  milk.  Even  tin  is  not  unobjectionable,  since  it 
is  apt  to  combine,  in  a  slight  degree,  with  this  acid,  and 
thus  a  compound  is  formed,  which  adheres  so  closely 
to  the  vessel,  that  it  can  be  removed  only  by  the  most 
careful  washing,  and  which  emits  a  disagreeable,  fetid 
odor.  In  addition  to  this,  the  greatest  care  must  be 
used,  in  heating  and  curdling  the  milk,  so  that  it  do 
not  talvo  place  too  suddenly  ;  that  the  cream  be  retain- 
ed, and  yet  that  the  whey  be  entirely  expressed.  The 
constant  and  unremitting  attention  requisite,  in  making 
cheese,  is  thus  described  by  Sir  John  Sinclair,  the  emi- 
nent agriculturist.  "  If,"  says  he,  "  a  few  spoonfuls  of 
milk  are  left  in  the  udder  of  the  cow,  at  milking ;  if  any 


MANAGEMENT  OF  MILK.  183 

one  of  tlie  implements  used  in  the  dairy  be  allowed  to 
be  tainted,  by  neglect ;  if  the  dairyhouse  be  kept  dirty, 
or  out  of  order ;  if  the  milk  is  either  too  hot  or  too  cold 
at  coagulating ;  if  too  much  or  too  little  rennet  is  put 
into  tiie  milk  ;  if  the  whey  is  not  speedily  taken  ofl'; — 
the  milk  will  be  in  a  great  measure  spoiled.  If  these 
nice  operations,"  continues  he,  "  occurred  only  once  a 
month,  or  once  a  week,  they  might  be  easily  guarded 
against ;  but  as  they  require  to  be  observed  during  every 
stage  of  the  process,  and  almost  every  hour  of  the  day, 
the  most  vigilant  attention  must  be  kept  up,  tluough 
the  wiiole  season."  Another  .author  remarks,  that 
"  cheese  varies  in  quality,  according  as  it  has  been  made 
of  milk  of  one  meal,  of  two  meals,  or  of  skimmed  milk  ; 
and  tiiat  the  season  of  the  year,  the  method  of  milking, 
the  preparation  of  the  rennet,  the  mode  of  coagulation, 
the  management  of  the  cheese  in  the  press,  the  method 
of  salting,  and  the  management  of  the  cheese-room,  are 
all  objects  of  the  highest  importance  to  the  cheese-man- 
ufacturer; and  yet,  notwithstanding  this,  the  practice, 
in  most  respects,  is  still  regulated  by  little  else  than 
mere  chance,  or  custom,  without  the  aid  of  enlightened 
observation,  or  of  well-conducted  experiment." 

The  cream,  which  rises  to  the  top  of  milk,  consists 
of  butter;  caseous  matter,  which  is  the  basis  of  cheese  ; 
and  loheij.  .  If  cream  be  put  into  a  sack,  and  suspend- 
ed, so  that  the  whey  may  run  off",  the  remainder  will 
be  cream  cheese.  If  it  be  put  into  a  vessel,  and  agitat- 
ed, the  butter  assumes  a  solid  form,  and  may  be  entire- 
ly separated  from  the  whey  and  caseous  matter  by  wash- 
ing and  kneading  it.  Whether  the  butter  naturally  ex- 
ists in  the  cream  or  milk,  and  is  distributed  through  it  by 
means  of  mechanical  suspension  ;  or  whether  it  is  form- 
ed from  it,  during  the  process  of  churning,  by  certain 
chemical  changes,  which  then  occur,  is  not  well  known. 
The  latter  seems  the  most  probable  opinion.  That 
churning  is  attended  by  important  chemical  changes 
IS  certain.  In  all  cases,  considerable  gas  is  extricated 
which  is  supposed  to  be  carbonic  acid  gas.     Oxygen 


184  THE  DOMESTIC  AKTS. 

also  seems  to  be  absorbed,  and  to  this  is  probably  ow- 
ing the  consistence  of  butter  ;  since  the  oils  are  found  to 
thicken,  by  exposure  to  oxygen.  If  these  two  changes 
do  take  place,  they  may  serve  to  explain  the  fact,  which 
is  well  known  to  butter-makers,  namely,  that  butter  is 
made  much  better  and  quicker,  from  cream  slightly 
acid,  than  from  that  which  is  sweet ;  and  that  still  the 
butter  will  be  sweet,  and  the  whey  or  buttermilk  much 
less  sour  than  the  cream  had  been.  The  carbonic  acid, 
which  produces  the  acidity,  escapes  during  the  churn- 
ing. 

To  make  good  butter  requires  constant  care  and  clean- 
liness. The  milk  should  be  kept  not  only  in  a  clean 
and  well-aired  apartment,  but  in  one,  also,  in  which  the 
temperature  is  regulated.  Too  much  heat  sours  the 
milk  before  the  cream  forms  ;  and  too  little  prevents  it 
from  forming  in  proper  quantities,  and  imparts  to  it  a 
bitter  and  disagreable  taste.  Churning,  too,  is  a  deli- 
cate process.  It  must  always  take  place  in  about  the 
same  temperature,  and  hence  the  practice,  which  seems 
at  first  view  inconsistent,  of  cooling  the  cream  in  Sum- 
mer, during  the  churning,  and  warming  it  in  Winter. 
The  agitation,  too,  of  the  cream,  should  be  kept  up, 
without  interruption,  otherwise  the  butter  will  go  back, 
as  it  is  called,  and  it  must  not  be  too  quick  and  violent, 
for  fear  of  imparting  a  disagreeable  flavor  to  the  butter. 
We  need  say  nothing  of  the  care  requisite  in  working 
off  the  whey  and  caseous  matter,  applying  salt,  packing 
down.  &c.  It  may  not  be  amiss  to  remark,  tliat  '•  it  is 
ascertained,  by  observation,  that  the  milk,  given  bv  an 
animal  during  the  latter  half  of  the  milking  process, 
yields  much  more  cream,  than  that  which  is  obtained 
at  first ;  and  also  that  the  cream,  which  first  rises  after 
the  milk  heis  been  deposited  in  the  dairy-pans,  is  both 
much  greater,  in  a  given  space  of  time,  than  tiiat  which 
rises  in  an  equal  space  several  hours  after,  and  of  a 
greatly  superior  quality  ;  that  thick  milk  throws  up  less 
cream  than  thin,  but  of  a  richer  quality  ;  and  tliat  milk, 
that  has  been  much  asritated  by  carryinsr.  and  cooled 


PRESERVING   OF  FOOD.  185 

before  it  is  put  into  the  milkpans,  never  throws  up  so 
much  cream  as  that  which  is  immediately  deposited  in 
them  after  milking.  It  is  also  known,  that  the  milk  is 
not  the  best,  till  about  four  months  after  the  cow  has 
calved ;  and  that  the  degree  of  heat,  most  favorable  to 
the  production  of  cream  from  milk,  is  from  fifty  to  fifty- 
five  degrees  Fahrenheit." 

4.  The  preserving  of  Food. — All  vegetable  and  an- 
imal substances  are  liable  to  decay.  This  is  owing  to 
certain  affinities  which  the  different  principles,  compos- 
ing these  substances,  have  for  each  other  and  for  sur- 
rounding bodies,  stronger  than  those  which  had  previ- 
ously united  them,  and  which  inclines  them,  as  soon  as 
the  living  principle  is  extinct,  to  decompose  and  form 
new  compounds.  Thus,  the  carbon  and  hydrogen,  which 
are  found  in  all  organized  bodies,  tend  to  appropriate 
to  themselves  so  much  oxygen,  as  shall  convert  them 
into  carbonic  acid  and  water.  In  the  case  of  animal 
bodies,  this  tendency  to  decomposition  is  stronger  than  in 
vegetables,  since,  in  addition  to  the  three  principles  just 
named,  which  they  have  in  common  with  all  vegetables, 
they  contain  nitrogen,  or  azote,  an  element  not  found  in 
most  plants,  and  which  has  a  strong  affinity  for  all  the 
above  principles,  especially  for  hydrogen. 

This  disposition  to  decay,  though  it  exists  from  the 
moment  that  the  vital  principle  is  extinct,  will  not  so 
soon  manifest  itself,  without  the  aid  o(  moisture,  air,  and 
a  certain  temperature.  It  is  well  known,  in  the  first 
place,  that  substances  kept  in  moist  situations  putrefy 
much  sooner  than  those  which  are  kept  dry.  The  water 
probably  acts,  by  softening  the  texture,  and  thus  coun- 
teracting the  agency  of  cohesion,  which  tends  to  keep 
the  substance  in  its  original  state :  a  part  of  the  effect 
may  be  owing,  also,  to  the  affinity  of  the  water  for  some 
of  the  products  of  the  putrefaction.  Hence  the  import- 
ance of  excluding  all  substances,  which  we  would  pre- 
serve, from  moisture.  Meat,  thoroughly  dried,  may  be 
kept  a  very  long  time.  So  may  fruit,  if  carefully  freed 
from  all  moisture,  and  kept  in  a  dry  apartment,  or 
16* 


186  THE  DOMESTIC   ARTS. 

packed  in  some  substance  which  will  absorb  the  mois- 
ture that  may  chance  to  collect,  or  exposed  to  a  uni- 
form heat,  sufficient  to  expel  the  watery  particles. 

Air  contributes  to  putrefaction,  by  uniting  its  oxy- 
gen with  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  of  the  decaying  sub- 
stance. Hence,  if  we  would  preserve  food,  for  a  great 
length  of  time,  we  must  endeavor  to  exclude  the  air, 
also.  This  is  done,  in  the  case  of  fruit,  by  putting  it 
in  bottles,  from  which  the  air  had  been  previously  ex- 
pelled, by  heat,  and  then  sealing  them  up,  air-tiaht. 
Another  method  has  been  brought  into  notice  recently, 
called,  ApperVs  process.  The  articles  to  be  preserved 
arc  enclosed  in  bottles,  which  are  filled  to  the  top  with 
any  liquid  ;  for  example,  with  the  water  in  which  the 
article,  if  soUd,  has  been  boiled.  The  bottles  are  close- 
ly corked  and  cemented,  to  render  them  hermetically 
tight.  They  are  then  placed  in  kettles  filled  with  cold 
water,  and  subjected  to  heat,  till  the  water  boils.  Af- 
ter the  boiling  temperature  has  been  kept  up,  for  a 
considerable  time, — in  some  cases  an  hour,  but  varying 
with  the  character  of  the  articles  to  be  preserved, — the 
bottles  are  suffered  gradually  to  cool.  In  this  state, 
meats,  vegetables,  fruits,  milk,  and  other  substances,  are 
preserved,  perfectly  fresh,  without  any  condiments,  for 
long  periods  of  time  ;  in  some  instances,  for  the  space 
of  six  years.  Instead  of  bottles,  tin  canisters  are  some- 
times used,  and  rendered  tight  by  soldering.  The  re- 
markable effect  of  this  process  is  to  be  attributed,  not 
altogether,  perhaps,  to  the  exclusion  of  atmospheric  air, 
since  some  will  remain  in  the  liquid  and  other  substan- 
ces ;  but  in  part,  also,  to  the  influence  which  the  heat 
has  had.  in  fixing  the  small  portion  of  atmospheric  oxy- 
gen, that  is  present,  by  combining  it  with  some  principle 
in  the  other  substances,  so  that  it  is  no  longer  capable 
of  exciting  the  fermentative  action,  which,  in  parallel 
cases,  leads  to  decomposition. 

Tiie  influence  of  certain  temperatures,  in  promoting 
decay,  is  well  known.  In  warm  seasons  and  in  hot  cli- 
mates, every  thing  tends  to  corruption.     The  heat  acts, 


TEMPERATURE. ANTISEPTICS.  187 

perhaps,  by  tending  to  separate,  from  one  another,  ele- 
ments which  are  already  combined.  The  temperature 
most  favorable  to  putrefaction  is  between  sixty  and  one 
hundred  degrees.  A  strong  heat  is  unfavorable,  by 
expelling  moisture  ;  and  a  cold  of  thirty-two  degrees, 
or  the  temperature  at  whicii  water  freezes,  arrests  its 
progress  altogether.  Bodies  of  men  and  animals  have 
been  found  frozen,  in  situations  where  they  had  remain- 
ed for  years,  and  even  ages ;  and  the  recent  discovery 
of  an  elephant  in  the  ice  of  Siberia,  a  country  in  which 
this  animal  could  have  lived  only  at  some  era  anterior 
to  our  history,  shows  that  the  period  of  this  preservation 
is  unlimited.  Hence  the  utihty  of  ice,  in  preserving  ali- 
mentary substances  in  hot  weather.  In  order  to  have 
its  proper  etlect,  it  should  be  placed,  with  the  substances 
to  be  preserved,  in  some  vessel  which  will  not  give  ad- 
mission to  the  heat.  Such  vessels  are  made  of  two  lin- 
ings ;  the  space  between  the  hnings  being  filled  with  char- 
coal, drv  air,  or  some  other  non-conducting  substance. 
In  addition  to  these  methods  of  guarding  against 
putrefaction,  important  service  is  rendered  by  a  class 
of  substances  called  antiseptics,  from  the  power  which 
tiiey  have  of  resisting  decay.  Of  this  class  are  sugar, 
alcohol,  oils,  acids,  and  salts  of  various  kinds.  How 
they  exert  this  influence  is  not  well  understood.  It 
appears,  however,  that,  in  some  cases,  they  combine 
with  the  substance  to  be  preserved, — forming  a  less 
perishable  compound,  and  probably,  in  other  instances, 
they  unite  witli  and  qualify  the  decomposing  agents 
which  are  present.  The  influence  of  sugar,  in  a  dry 
state,  and  in  the  form  of  syrup ;  of  vinegar,  and  pyro- 
ligneous  acid ;  of  common  salt,  and  alcohol ;  in  pre 
venting  decay,  is  familiar  to  all  persons. 

In  the  domestic  as  in  other  arts,  improvements  have 
been  made,  which  have  added  essentially  to  human 
enjoyment.  If  we  compare  the  food  used  at  present 
with  that  consumed  three  centuries  ago,  by  tjie  labor- 
er, or  even  by  the  gentleman,  we  shall  be  amazed  at 


188  THE  DOMESTIC  ARTS. 

the  changes  for  the  better  which  have  taken  place,  both 
in  the  variety  and  quality.  At  that  time,  the  garden 
vegetables,  now  used  almost  universally,  and  forming 
an  important  part  of  the  food  of  every  class, — such,  for 
example,  as  potatoes,  beets,  radishes,  lettuce, — were  yet 
hardly  introduced  into  England,  and  could  be  found  on 
the  tables  only  of  the  most  luxurious.  The  diet  of  the 
peasants,  throughout  Europe,  is  thus  described  by  For- 
tescue,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Henry  the  Sixth,  of 
England :  "  They  drink  water  ;  they  eate  apples,  with 
bread  right  browne,  made  of  rye  ;  they  eate  no  flesche, 
but,  if  it  be  selden,  a  littell  larde,  or  of  the  entrails  or 
heds  of  beastes  sclayne  for  the  nobles  or  marchauntes 
of  the  lond."  The  rich  had  animal  food,  in  abundance ; 
but  few  of  the  other  luxuries  which  load  a  modern  ta- 
ble. Not  to  refer,  however,  to  periods  so  remote,  we 
shall  find  evidence  of  most  striking  changes,  if  we  re- 
vert merely  to  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of 
George  the  Third.  At  that  time,  barley,  rye,  or  oaten 
bread,  was  the  universal  food  of  the  working  popula- 
tion in  England.  As  late  as  the  year  1764,  the  quan- 
tity of  barley  grain,  in  England,  was  equal  to  that  of 
wheat ;  it  is  not  now  more  than  one  third  of  it,  though 
the  proportion  converted  into  malt  has  been  increased. 
Sir  Frederick  Morton  Eden  says,  "  About  fifty  years 
ago,  so  little  was  the  quantity  of  wheat  used  in  the 
county  of  Cumberland,  that  it  was  only  a  rich  family 
that  used  a  peck  of  wheat  in  the  course  of  the  year ; 
and  that  was  used  at  Christmas."  At  that  period,  even 
in  the  richest  counties,  barley-bread  formed  the  univer- 
sal food,  not  only  of  the  common  laborers,  but  also  of 
the  smaller  farmers.  Whereas,  now,  wheaten  bread  is 
eaten,  almost  universally,  even  in  Wales,  and  the  poor- 
est districts.  The  consumption  of  butchers'  meat,  but- 
ter, cheese,  <Slc.,  has  increased  in  a  ratio  nearly  double 
of  that  at  which  population  has  advanced ;  and  the 
same  may  be  said  of  tea  and  sugar,  those  admirable 
substitutes  for  fermented  and  spirituous  liquors.* 
*  See  Appendix,  VI. 


ARTS  OF  WORKING  METALS.  189 

CHAPTER  IX. 

ARTS  OF  WORKING  METALS. 

Under  this  title,  we  shall  include  all  the  methods 
adopted  in  the  arts,  I.  For  obtaining  metals  from  their 
ores,  and,  II.  For  forming  them  into  articles  of  lux- 
ury or  use. 

Tiiese  arts  present,  to  the  reflecting  mind,  a  subject 
of  great  and  increasing  interest.  In  the  civilization  of 
mankind,  the  metals  exert  a  most  important  mfluence. 
Scarcely  a  comfort  is  introduced  into  our  habitations, 
scarcely  an  improvement  is  made  in  the  mechanical 
or  chemical  arts,  without  their  aid.  To  this  class  of 
substances  the  husbandman,  the  carpenter,  the  smith, 
the  housewife,  and  the  manufacturer,  are  indebted,  for 
nearly  all  their  implements.  The  precious  metals  not 
only  aftbrd  us  jewelry  and  plate,  but  form  the  basis  of 
our  currency.  Those  of  less  value  are  wrought  into 
vessels  of  every  description,  for  household  and  manu- 
facturing purposes ;  or  furnish  us  with  tools,  furniture, 
and  ornaments.  And  even  that  mineral,  which,  in  its 
natural  state,  seems  of  all  the  least  valuable,  namely, 
iron, — what  a  value  has  been  impressed  upon  it,  by  the 
power  of  Art !  What  would  be  our  civilization,  with- 
out iron  ?  Who  could  cultivate  the  earth,  or  navigate 
the  sea,  or  lay  out  and  travel  roads,  or  weave  cloth,  or 
build  houses,  or  construct  machinery,  Avithout  this  sub- 
stance ?* 

An  art  so  important  to  mankind,  must  soon  have 
commanded  their  attention,  and  been  carried  to  some 
degree  of  perfection.  Hence  we  read,  before  the  Flood, 
of  Tubal-Cain,  who  was  an  instructor  of  every  artificer 
in  brass  and  iron.  What  was  the  effect  of  that  great 
catastrophe,  on  the  useful  arts,  is  unknown.  Some  inti- 
mations are  gathered,  from  the  ancient  poets  and  his- 

*  Sec  Appendix,  VII. 


190  ARTS  OF   WORKING  METALS. 

torians,  which  would  lead  us  to  infer,  that  the  art  of 
working  metals,  though  not  unknown,  was  extremely 
limited.  This  remark  applies  particularly  to  iron, 
wlich  is  extracted  from  the  ore  with  more  difficulty 
tha^i  most  other  metallic  substances.  Barbarous  and 
semi-civilized  nations  are  found,  who  have  been  able  to 
extract  the  more  precious  metals,  but  have  never  ob- 
tained iron.  The  estimation  in  which  such  a  people 
hold  this  substance,  and  the  esigerness  with  which,  when 
a  ship  arrives,  they  inquire  for  it,  might  convey  a  use- 
ful lesson  to  those  who  are  accustomed  to  regard  it  as 
of  little  value.  The  art  of  working  iron  was  probably 
introduced  into  Britain  by  Julius  Caesar.  A  spot  is 
now  pointed  out  to  the  traveller,  where  a  furnace  was 
worked  for  six  or  seven  centuries,  and  the  rude  state 
of  the  art,  at  that  period,  is  inferred  from  the  fact,  that 
the  mass  of  cinders  accumulated,  during  so  long  a  time, 
is  not  greater  than  would  collect  around  some  modern 
furnaces  in  a  few  months.  The  improvements  which 
have  been  made  consist  chiefly  in  the  introduction  of 
machinery,  and  in  the  more  skilful  use  of  chemical 
agents.  It  will  be  our  object,  in  this  Chapter,  to  de- 
scribe tlie  several  processes  through  which  metals  pass, 
on  their  way  from  the  mine  to  the  hands  of  those  for 
whose  use  they  are  ultimately  destined.  These  may 
be  arranged  under  the  following  heads :  I.  Mining. 
II.  Di'essing  ores.  III.  Reducing  ores.  IV.  Work- 
ing up  the  pure  metals.  It  is  obvious,  that  these 
processes  must  vary,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
metal,  and  the  use  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied.  We 
shall  confine  our  explanations  principally  to  those  meth- 
ods which  are  common  to  all  the  metals ;  and  even 
here,  we  can  hope  to  exhibit  only  a  very  imperfect 
sketch  of  an  operation,  which  is  often  complicated  and 
extremely  delicate. 

I.  Mining. — Metals  are  rarely  found  in  what  is 
called  their  native  state,  that  is,  uncombined  with  oth- 
er substances.  Having  a  strong  affinity  for  various  sim- 
ple bodies,  such  as  oxygen,  sulphur,  arsenic,  and  other 


MINING.  191 

metals,  they  generally  occur  in  combination  with  one 
or  more  of  these,  and  are  then  said  to  be  mineralized. 
But  besides  these  substances,  with  which  they  unite, 
chemically,  and  which  serve,  in  some  measure,  to  dis- 
guise their  metallic  properties,  they  are  intermixed, 
mechanicaUi) ,  with  various  earths,  which  arc  termed 
their  gangues,  or  matrices.  The  state  in  which  they 
are  found  by  the  miner,  and  the  manner  in  which  he 
prosecutes  his  labors,  may  be  gathered  from  the  fol- 
lowing description  of  the  mines  in  Cornwall,  England. 
An  irregular  cre\ice  in  tiic  rock  generally  indicates 
the  place  where  the  metal  is  deposited.  Instead  of  be- 
ing collected  at  one  point,  it  is  scattered  in  veins  and 
branches,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  say,  beforehand, 
at  what  particular  points  the  riches  of  the  mine  exist. 
Hence  the  necessity  of  proceeding  on  some  fixed  plan,  in 
order  to  explore  it,  and  put  it  into  a  state  capable  of 
being  worked  by  a  number  of  men.  To  effect  this,  a 
perpendicular  pit,  or  shaft,  is  sunk,  at  a  depth  of  about 
sixty  feet ;  a  horizontal  gallery,  or  level,  is  cut  in  the 
earth,  say  both  towards  the  east  and  towards  the  west, 
the  ore  and  materials  being  raised,  at  first,  by  a  com- 
mon windlass.  As  soon  as  the  two  sets  of  miners  have 
each  cut  or  driven  the  level  about  a  hundred  yards, 
they  find  it  impossible  to  proceed,  for  want  of  air. 
This  being  anticipated,  two  other  sets  of  miners  have 
been  sinking,  from  the  surface,  two  other  perpendicular 
shafts,  to  meet  them.  From  these,  the  ores  and  mate- 
rials may  be  raised  ;  and  it  is  evident,  that,  by  thus 
sinking  perpendicular  shafts,  a  hundred  yards  from  each 
other,  the  first  gallery  or  level  may  be  prolonged  at 
pleasure.  But  while  this  horizontal  work  is  carrying 
on,  the  original,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  the  engine  shaft,  is 
sunk  deeper ;  and,  at  a  second  depth  of  sixty  feet,  a 
second  horizontal  gallery,  or  level,  is  driven  towards  the 
east  and  towards  the  west,  receiving  air  from  the  various 
perpendicular  shafts,  which  are  all  successively  sunk 
down,  so  as  to  meet  it.  The  main  shaft  is  then  sunk 
further  ;  and,  at  the  same  distance,  is  driven  a  third,  and 


192  THE   ARTS   OF  WORKIXG  METALS. 

then  a  fourth,  gallery,  and  so  on,  to  any  depth.  The 
lowest  level,  in  one  of  the  Cornish  mines,  is  said  to  be 
nearly  one  thousand  feet  below  the  level  of  the  ocean. 
These  galleries  are  excavated,  not  so  much  for  the  sake 
of  the  ore  which  they  yield,  directly,  as  to  enable  a  num- 
ber of  men  to  v.ork  together,  in  the  subsequent  opera- 
tions. The  ore  and  other  materials  are  raised  to  the  sur- 
face by  steam,  or  by  large  capstans,  worked  by  horses. 
Similar  means  are  also  used,  in  order  to  drain  the 
mine  of  the  water,  which  often  accumulates,  except 
v.'here  it  is  found  easier  to  tap  the  hill,  and  thus  dis- 
charge the  water  by  drains. 

Another  important  circumstance,  in  opening  a  mine, 
is,  to  prepare  a  proper  support  for  the  earth,  which  rests 
over  the  galleries.  This  is  effected,  in  part,  by  the 
form  which  is  given  to  the  galleries ;  but  more  com- 
monly, by  leaving  pillars  of  stone  in  their  natural  place, 
and  providing  artificial  props,  of  timber,  stones,  and 
masonry. 

II.  The  ores,  having  been  raised  to  the  surface,  are 
in  the  next  place  dressed;  that  is,  prepared  for  smelt- 
ing. This  includes  the  various  operations  of  sorting, 
stamping,  icashing.  and  roasting.  The  first  three 
are  mechanical  operations;  the  fourth  is  chemical. 
Sarti7ig  consists  merely  in  the  separation  of  the  dif- 
erent  pieces  of  ore  into  lots,  according  to  the  prod- 
ucts they  are  expected  to  afford,  and  the  treatment 
they  are  likely  to  require.  After  the  ore  is  sorted,  it  is 
carried  to  the  stamper,  or  stamjying-mill.  which  con- 
sists either  of  hammers  or  iron  cylinders  driven  up  and 
down,  and  which  serves  to  break  up  the  ore,  together 
with  its  gangue,  into  a  coarse  powder.  To  this,  succeeds 
the  washing  of  the  powdered  ore,  in  troughs  or  in- 
clined planes,  crossed  by  a  current  of  water,  the  heavi- 
er ore  remaining,  while  the  lighter,  earthy,  and  stony, 
substances  are  carried  away  by  the  water.  The  ore  is 
then  roasted,  in  order  to  drive  off  the  sulphur,  arsenic, 
and  other  volatile  parts,  which  may  happen  to  be  com- 
bined with  it,  and  also  to  oxidize  any  metals  which 


REDUCING   ORES.  193 

may  not  be  volatile.  It  is  proper  to  remark,  that  some 
ores  do  not  require  all  these  operations  ;  copper  ore, 
for  example,  is  not  stamped,  but  is  broken  into  small 
fragments  by  the  hammer.  In  other  cases,  roasting  is 
unnecessary. 

III.  Having  been  thus  prepared  or  dressed,  the 
ores  are  in  the  next  place  reduced  or  purified.  The 
object  of  this  is  to  separate  them  from  any  other  ingre- 
dients, with  which  they  may  be  combined,  and  to  drive 
otl'  the  oxygen,  imbibed  in  washing,  or  which  is  natu- 
rally present.  This  reduction  is  effected  by  fusing 
them  with  charcoal  and  a  substance  called  a  flux,  which 
may  be  lime,  fluor-spar,  borax,  or  one  of  the  earthy  or 
metallic  oxides.  The  charcoal  attracts  the  oxygen  to 
itself,  and  the  lime  unites  with  the  earthy  and  sihcious 
substances,  forming  a  sort  of  glass,  so  that  the  metal 
melts,  and  falls  to  the  bottom,  in  a  pure  state.  This  is 
called  smelting.  In  other  cases,  as  in  reducing  gold 
and  silver,  amalgamation  is  used  ;  that  is,  the  ore, 
after  being  pounded  and  washed,  is  combined  with 
quicksilver,  by  which  an  alloy  or  amalgam  is  formed. 
This,  after  removing  the  more  earthy  parts,  is  enclosed 
in  leather,  and  subjected  to  pressure,  by  means  of 
which,  the  more  liquid  parts  are  forced  through  the 
leather,  while  the  residuum,  containing  the  greater  part 
of  the  gold,  remains.  It  is  then  subjected  to  distilla- 
tion, in  order  to  separate  the  quicksilver.  .In  other 
cases,  the  metal  is  purified,  by  liquefying  it  with  some 
other  metal,  of  different  specific  gravity,  or  is  subjected 
to  the  action  of  acids,  or  to  other  processes,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  metal,  and  also  of  the  substances 
with  which  it  is  found  combined. 

It  may  be  proper,  under  this  head,  to  say  something 
of  assaying,  alloys,  and  solders.  Assaying  is  the 
process  of  analyzing  ores,  in  small  quantities,  to  ascer- 
tain the  proportion  of  pure  metal  which  they  contain. 
It  is  effected  by  taking  equal  portions  of  the  poorest, 
richest,  and  medium,  ores,  putting  them  together,  and 
purifying  them,  in  the  manner  already  mentioned,  which 
17  s.  A. 


194  THE  ARTS   OV  WORKING  METALS. 

will  yield  a  metal,  more  or  less  simple.  If  compound, 
this  metal  is  further  analyzed,  by  the  use  of  acids  and 
of  alkalies,  by  distillation,  amalgamation,  &c. 

Alloys  are  compounds,  formed  by  fusing  two  or 
more  metals  together.  They  are  extensively  used  in 
the  arts,  because  they  are  cheaper,  harder,  and  more 
durable,  than  the  pure  metal.  The  most  common  al- 
loys are  plate  and  coins,  which  consist  of  gold  or  sil- 
ver, alloyed  with  copper ;  pewter,  which  is  lead,  alloy- 
ed with  tin  ;  brass,  pinchbeck,  and  tombac,  which  are 
composed  of  copper,  alloyed,  in  different  proportions, 
with  zinc ;  bronze,  composed  of  copper,  zinc,  and  tin ; 
and  the  metal  of  which  printer's  types  are  made,  being 
an  alloy  of  lead,  copper,  tin,  and  antimony.  Another  im- 
portant use  of  alloys  is,  in  the  application  of  tin  (a  very 
fusible  metal)  to  the  surface  of  iron  and  copper  vessels, 
to  form  a  coat,  and  thus  prevent  them  from  rusting. 

Solders  are  either  simple  metals  or  alloys,  which 
are  used  to  cement  metallic  joints,  or  fractures.  Their 
value,  like  that  of  tin,  depends  upon  the  fact,  that  they 
melt  at  a  temperature  much  lower  than  the  metals 
which  they  are  employed  to  join. 

IV.  The  metal,  having  been  thus  brought  into  the 
proper  state  for  making  useful  implements,  is  worked 
up,  according  to  its  nature,  by  casting,  or  by  hammer- 
ing. In  casting,  the  metal  is  fused  and  poured  into 
moulds,  of  the  requisite  shape,  where  it  is  allowed  to 
cool.  In  this  way,  our  stoves,  kettles,  cannon-ball, 
&c.,  are  cast.  In  the  other  case,  the  metal  is  heated 
to  a  red  or  white  heat,  by  which  it  becomes  more  mal- 
leable, and  is  then  brought  into  the  requisite  form,  by 
hammering,  grinding,  &c.  We  cannot  do  better 
than  to  take  a  single  metal,  and  describe  the  various 
processes  to  which  it  is  subjected.  We  select  Iron, 
since  it  is  the  metal  which,  of  all  others,  combines,  in 
the  greatest  degree,  cheapness  with  ductility,  fusibility, 
and  strength,  and  which  is  therefore  more  extensively 
used  than  any  other  metal.  An  iron  wire  can  be  easi- 
ly bent  or  drawn  out,  and  will  at  the  same  time  sus- 


WORKING  OF  IRON.  195 

tain  nearly  twice  as  much  weight  as  any  other  metal- 
lic wire  of  the  same  diameter. 

As  iron  comes  from  the  smelting  furnace,  it  is  in 
masses  called  pig"*,  and  is  cast  iron.  The  principal 
changes  through  which  it  passes  are,  1.  Puddling  and 
rolling,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  burn  away  or  squeeze 
out  any  foreign  substances,  which  the  metal  may  con- 
tain, and,  by  rendering  it  more  malleable,  convert  it 
into  wrought  iron.  2.  Case-liardening,  which  con- 
verts the  surface  of  ivrought  iron  into  steel,  by  im- 
mersing it  in  cast  iron,  while  in  a  state  of  fusion.  3. 
Cementation,  which  converts  iron  into  steel,  by  heat- 
ing bars  of  the  purest  iron,  in  contact  with  charcoal, 
by  which  means  carbon  will  be  absorbed,  and  the 
weight  of  the  metal  increased,  while,  at  the  same  time, 
it  acquires  a  blistered  surface.  In  this  state,  we  call 
it  blistered  steel ;  when  drawn  down  into  smaller  bars, 
and  beaten,  it  forms  tilted  steel ;  and  this,  broken  up, 
heated,  welded,  and  again  drawn  out  into  bars,  forms 
shear  steel.  4.  Tempering,  wiiich,  by  heating  steel, 
gradually,  to  a  certain  temperature,  deprives  it  of  that 
hardness  and  brittlencss  which  renders  it  unfit  for  prac- 
tical purposes.  These  processes,  however,  will  be  ren- 
dered more  intelligible,  by  the  following  description  of 
the  changes  through  which  a  piece  of  iron  passes,  in 
order  to  become  a  knife-blade,  which  we  take  from  a 
very  entertaining  and  instructive  little  work,  called, 
'  The  results  of  Machinery. '  "  The  man  who  has  a 
lump  of  iron  ore, "  says  the  author, "  has  certainly  a 
knife  in  the  heart  of  it ;  but  no  mere  labor  can  work  it 
out.  Shape  it  as  you  may,  it  is  not  a  knife,  or  steel,  or 
even  iron, — it  is  iron  ore ;  and,  dress  it  as  you  will,  it 
would  not  cut  better  than  a  brickbat,  certainly  not  so 
well  as  the  shell  or  bone  of  the  savage. 

"  There  must  be  knowledge,  before  any  thing  can  be 
done  in  this  case.  We  must  know  what  is  mixed  with 
the  iron,  and  how  to  separate  it.  We  cannot  do  it  by 
mere  labor,  as  we  can  chip  away  the  wood,  and  get 
out  the  bowl :  and  therefore  we  have  recourse  to  fire 


196  THE   ARTS   OF  WORKING  METALS. 

"  In  the  ordinary  mode  of  using  it,  fire  would  make 
matters  worse.  If  we  put  the  material  into  the  fire,  as 
a  stone,  we  should  probably  receive  it  back,  as  slag  or 
dross.  We  must  therefore  prepare  our  fuel.  Our 
fire  must  be  hot,  very  hot ;  but  if  our  fuel  be  wood,  we 
must  burn  it  into  charcoal,  or,  if  it  be  coal,  into  coke. 

"  The  charcoal  or  coke  answers  for  one  purpose  ; 
but  we  have  still  the  clay  or  other  earth  mixed  with 
our  iron, — and  how  are  we  to  get  rid  of  that  ?  Pure 
clav,  or  pure  lime,  or  pure  earth  of  flint,  remains  stub- 
born in  our  hottest  fires ;  but  when  they  are  mixed,  in 
a  proper  proportion,  the  one  melts  the  other. 

"  So  charcoal  or  coke,  and  ironstone  or  iron  ore, 
and  limestone,  are  put  into  a  furnace  ;  the  charcoal  or 
coke  is  hghted  at  the  bottom,  and  wind  is  blown  into 
the  furnace,  at  the  bottom,  also.  If  that  wind  is  not 
sent  in  by  machinery,  and  very  powerful  machinery, 
too,  the  effect  will  be  little,  and  the  work  of  man  great ; 
but  still  it  can  be  done. 

'•'  In  this  furnace,  the  lime  and  clay,  or  earth  of  flint, 
unite,  and  form  a  sort  of  glass,  which  floats  upon  the 
surface.  At  the  same  time,  the  carbon,  or  pure  char- 
coal, of  the  fuel,  with  the  assistance  of  the  hmestone, 
mixes  with  the  stone,  or  ore,  and  melts  the  iron,  which, 
being  heavier  than  the  other  matters,  runs  down  to  the 
bottom  of  the  furnace,  and  remains  there  till  tiie  work- 
man lets  it  out  by  a  hole,  made  at  the  bottom  of  the 
furnace  for  that  purpose,  and  plugged  with  sand.  When 
the  workman  knows  there  is  enough  melted,  or  when 
the  appointed  time  arrives,  he  displaces  the  plug  of  sand 
with  an  iron  rod,  and  the  melted  iron  runs  out  like  wa- 
ter, and  is  conveyed  into  furrows  made  in  sand,  where 
it  cools,  and  the  pieces  formed  in  the  principal  furrows 
are  called  '  sows,'  and  those  in  the  furrows  branching 
from  them,  '  pigs.'  A  single  furnace  will  in  this  way 
make  seventy-five  tons  of  iron,  in  a  week  ;  or  as  much 
iron,  in  the  year,  as  will  make  the  blades  of  about  one 
hundred  and  forty  millions  of  knives,  at  an  ounce  to 
each  blade. 


WORKING  OF  IRON.  197 

"  But  great  as  is  the  advantage  of  this  first  step  of 
the  iron-making,  the  iron  is  not  yet  fit  for  a  knife.  It 
is  cast  iron.  It  cannot  be  worked  by  the  hammer,  or 
sharpened  to  a  cutting  edge  ;  and  so  it  must  be  made 
into  malleable  iron,  a  kind  of  iron,  which,  instead  of 
melting  in  the  fire,  will  soften,  and  admit  of  being  ham- 
mered into  shape,  or  united  by  the  process  of  welding. 

"The  methods,  by  which  this  is  accomplished,  vary; 
but  they  in  general  consist  in  keeping  the  iron  melted 
in  a  furnace,  and  stirring  it  with  an  iron  rake,  till  the 
blast  of  air  in  the  furnace  burns  the  greater  part  of  the 
carbon  out  of  it.  By  this  means,  it  becomes  tough ; 
and,  without  cooling,  is  taken  from  the  furnace  and  re- 
peatedly beaten  by  large  hammers,  or  squeezed  through 
large  rollers,  until  it  becomes  the  bar  iron,  of  which  so 
much  use  is  made,  in  every  art  of  life. 

'•  Bringing  it  into  this  state  requires  great  force  ;  and 
the  unaided  strength  of  all  the  men  in  Britain  could  not 
make  all  the  iron  which  is  at  present  made,  though  they 
did  i^otiiing  else.  Machinery  is  therefore  resorted  to ; 
and  water-wheels,  steam-engines,  and  all  sorts  of  pow- 
ers, are  set  to  work,  in  moving  hammers,  turning  roll- 
ers, and  drawing  rods  and  wires  through  holes,  till  every 
workman  can  have  the  particular  form  which  he  wants. 
If  it  were  not  for  the  machinery  that  is  employed  in 
the  manufacture,  no  man  could  obtain  a  spade  for  less 
than  the  price  of  a  year's  labor ;  the  yokes  of  a  horse 
would  cost  more  than  the  horse  himself;  and  the  farm- 
er would  have  to  return  to  wooden  ploughshares,  and 
hoes  made  of  sticks  with  crooked  ends.  There  would 
be  laboi'  enough,  then,  as  we  have  already  shown  :  but 
the  people  could  not  live  upon  the  labor  only  ;  they 
must  have  profitable  labor. 

'•'  After  all  this,  the  iron  is  not  yet  fit  for  a  knife, — at 
least  for  such  a  knife  as  an  Englishman  may  buy  for  a 
shilling.  Many  nations  would,  however,  be  thankful 
for  a  little  bit  of  it,  and  nations,  too,  in  whose  countries 
there  is  no  want  of  iron  ore.  But  they  have  no  know- 
ledge of  the  method  of  making  iron,  and  have  no  fur- 
17=* 


198  THE  ARTS  OF  WORKING  METALS. 

naces  or  machinery.  When  our  ships  sail  anriong  the 
people  of  the  Eastern  islands,  those  people  do  not  ask 
for  gold.  '  Iron,  iron !'  is  the  call ;  and  he,  who  can 
exchange  his  best  commodity  for  a  rusty  nail,  or  a  bit 
of  iron  hoop,  is  a  fortunate  individual. 

"  We  are  not  satisfied  with  that,  in  the  best  form, 
which  is  a  treasure  to  those  people,  in  the  worst.  We 
must  have  a  knife,  not  of  iron,  but  of  steel,  a  substance 
that  will  bear  a  keen  edge,  without  either  breaking  or 
bending.  In  order  to  get  that,  we  must  again  change 
the  nature  of  our  material. 

'•'  How  is  that  to  be  done  ?  The  oftener  that  iron  is 
heated  and  hammered,  the  softer  and  more  ductile  it 
becomes ;  and  as  the  heating  and  hammering  forced 
the  carbon  out  of  it,  if  we  give  it  the  carbon  back  again, 
we  shall  harden  it ;  but  it  happens  that  we  also  give  it 
other  properties,  by  restoring  its  carbon,  when  the  iron 
has  once  been  in  a  ductile  state. 

"  For  this  purpose,  bars  or  pieces  of  iron  are  buried 
in  powdered  charcoal,  covered  up  in  a  vessel,  and  kept 
at  a  red  heat  for  a  greater  or  less  number  of  hours,  ac-= 
cording  to  the  object  desired.  There  are  niceties  in 
the  process,  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  explain,  that 
produce  the  peculiar  quality  of  steel,  as  distinguished 
from  cast  iron.  If  the  operation  of  heating  the  iron  in 
charcoal  is  continued  too  long,  or  the  heat  is  too  great, 
the  iron  becomes  cast  steel,  and  cannot  be  welded  ;  but 
if  it  is  not  melted  in  the  operation,  it  can  be  worked 
with  the  hammer,  in  the  same  manner  as  iron. 

'•'  In  each  case,  however,  it  has  acquired  the  property 
upon  which  the  keenness  of  the  knife  depends ;  and 
the  chief  difference,  between  the  cast  steel  and  the  steel 
that  can  bear  to  be  hammered,  is,  that  cast  steel  takes 
a  keener  edge,  but  is  more  easily  broken. 

"  The  property  which  it  has  acquired  is  that  of  bear- 
ing to  be  tempered.  If  it  be  made  very  hot,  and  plung- 
ed into  cold  water,  and  kept  there  till  it  is  quite  cooled, 
it  is  so  hard  that  it  will  cut  iron,  but  it  is  brittle.  In 
this  state,  the  workman  brightens  the  surface,  and  lavs 


THE  MANUFACTURK   OF   GLASS.  199 

the  steel  upon  a  piece  of  hot  iron,  and  holds  it  to  the 
fire  till  it  becomes  of  a  color  which  he  knows  from  ex- 
perience is  a  test  of  the  proper  state  of  the  process. 
Then  he  plunges  it  again  into  water,  and  it  has  the  de- 
gree of  hardness  that  he  wants. 

''  The  grinding  a  knife,  and  the  polishing  it,  even 
when  it  has  acquired  the  requisite  properties  of  steel, 
if  they  were  not  done  by  machinery,  would  cost  more 
tlian  the  wiiole  price  of  a  knife,  upon  which  machinery 
is  used.  A  travelling  knifegrinder,  with  his  treadle 
and  wheels,  has  a  machine,  but  not  a  very  perfect  one. 
The  Sheffield  knifemaUer  grinds  the  knife,  at  first,  up- 
on wheels  of  immense  size,  turned  by  water  or  steam, 
and  moving  so  quickly,  that  they  appear  to  stand  still ; 
the  eve  cannot  follow  the  motion.  With  these  aids, 
t!ie  original  grinding  and  polishing  cost  scarcely  any 
titing ;  while  the  travelling  knifegrinder  charges  two- 
pence for  the  labor  of  himself  and  his  wheel,  in  just 
sharpening  it. 

••  As  iron  is  with  us  almost  as  plentiful  as  stone,  we 
do  not  think  much  about  it.  But  there  is  a  great  deal 
to  be  done,  much  thinking  and  inventing,  before  so 
simple  a  thing  as  a  shilling  knife  could  be  procured  ; 
and  without  the  thinking  and  the  inventing,  all  the 
strength  of  all  the  men  that  ever  lived  never  could  pro- 
cure it ;  and  without  the  machinery  to  hghten  the  la- 
bor, no  ingenuity  could  furnish  it  at  a  thousand  times 
the  expense." 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE   MANUFACTURE  OF  GLASS. 


The  metals  afford  a  striking  instance  of  the  power 
of  human  ingenuity  and  labor,  in  imparting  value  to 
substances,  which,  in  their  natural  state,  are  worthless. 
This  appears  still  more  conspicuously  in  the  case  of 
glass  and  pottery.     The  ores,  from  which  metals  are 


200  THE  MAMJFACTURE   OF   GLASS. 

extracted,  are  frequently  scarce,  and  can  only  be  ob- 
tained at  an  immense  expense  of  labor  and  time.  The 
materials,  of  which  glass  and  pottery  are  formed,  exist, 
in  abundance,  near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  in 
almost  every  neighborhood.  Glass  is  composed  of 
silicious  sand  or  pounded  flint,  mixed  with  potash  or 
soda  ;  which  latter  materials  are  readily  obtained  by 
burning  vegetable  substances.  Pottery  is  a  species  of 
brick  ;  and,  like  it,  is  formed  of  clay,  kneaded  together, 
then  moulded  into  the  requisite  forms,  and  hardened  by 
heat. 

The  value  of  these  substances,  Avhich  are  thus  cre- 
ated from  the  most  worthless  materials,  must  be  obvi- 
ous to  every  one.  They  are  equally  important  to  sci- 
ence and  the  arts,  and  in  domestic  life.  Take  glass, 
for  example.  Without  it,  the  astronomer  would  be 
unable  to  construct  those  instruments,  with  which  he 
traces  the  movements,  and  counts  the  number,  of  the 
stars.  The  naturalist  would  be  prevented  from  explor- 
ing the  minute  recesses  of  plants,  and  animals,  and 
unorganized  matter,  by  which  means  he  ascertains  their 
structure,  and  brings  to  light  the  myriads  of  animated 
beings  with  which  they  are  peopled.  Age  and  in- 
firmity would  be  destitute  of  the  means  for  repairing 
defects  of  vision,  and  thus  be  deprived  of  the  innumer- 
able benefits  and  pleasures  which  it  was  intended  to 
afford.  Our  habitations,  instead  of  being  irradiated 
with  the  clear  light  of  day,  would  enjoy  only  the  faint 
beams  which  could  find  their  v.ay  tln-ough  oiled  paper, 
liorn,  or  mica.  The  druggist  would  no  longer  be  able 
to  examine  his  medicines,  nor  the  chemist  his  experi- 
ments, through  the  sides  of  transparent  vessels.  Mir- 
rors to  reflect  the  person  would  not  now  be  found  in 
every  cottage,  but  would  be  a  luxury  known  only  in 
the  palace,  or  the  mansion  of  the  rich  ;  and,  instead  of 
d.rinking-glasses  and  decanters,  which  now  ornament 
every  table,  at  a  trifling  expense,  we  should  have  to 
content  ourselves  with  drinking-cups  of  tin  or  pewter, 
and  jugs  of  stone. 


MIXING  THE  MATERIALS.  201 

Tlie  art  of  making  glass  was  probably  first  suggested 
by  the  sight  of  native  crystal.  It  is  certainly  ancient, 
but  was  probably  confined,  among  the  Oriental  nations, 
as  well  as  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  ornaments  and  utensils.  Its  use  in  windows, 
and,  what  is  hardly  less  important,  in  optical  instru- 
ments, is  a  modern  invention.*  At  what  time  glass 
was  first  introduced  into  the  windows  of  churches  is 
not  absolutely  known  ;  but  probably  not  before  the 
third  or  fourth  century.  In  the  windows  of  private 
dwellings  it  was  very  sparingly  employed,  till  the  seven- 
teenth century ;  and  a  hundred  years  have  not  elapsed, 
since  many  houses  in  England  and  our  own  Coun- 
try were  without  windows,  or  lighted  only  through  oil- 
ed paper,  horn,  &c.  At  present,  owing  to  chemical 
knowledge  and  greater  division  of  labor,  the  art  is  so  per- 
fect, that  glass  vessels  and  windows  can  be  aflbrded  by 
the  humblest  individuals.  We  propose,  in  this  Chap- 
ter, briefly  to  explain  the  several  processes  employed 
in  making  glass,  referring  the  reader,  for  a  more  detail- 
ed account,  to  '  Bigeloiv^s  Technology /-[  from  which 
much  of  the  matter  of  this  Chapter  is  abridged. 

Glass. — 1.  Glass,  as  we  have  already  said,  is  com- 
])osed  of  Jiint,  fused  with  some  alkaline  substance. 
The  flint  is  found  in  the  sand  of  certain  situations,  or 
is  obtained  by  heating  common  flints  or  quartz,  red 
hot,  and  then  plunging  them  into  cold  water.  They 
turn  white,  fall  to  pieces,  and  are  then  pounded  and 
sifted,  before  being  mixed  with  the  alkali.  Pure  silic- 
ious  sand,  however,  is  to  be  preferred,  since  it  is  al- 
ready pulverized ;    and  it  may  be  found  in  several  lo- 


*  Glass  windows  arc  said  to  have  been  discovered  in  the  buildings 
at  Pompeii,  formed  of  glass  which  must  have  been  blown. 

t  Since  the  above  was  written,  Dr.  Bigelow's  work,  above  allud- 
ed to,  has  been  revised  by  the  author,  and,  with  many  additions  and 
alterations,  republished  as  a  part  of'  The  School  Library,'  (of 
which  it  forms  volumes  xi.  and  .\ii.  of  the  larger  series,)  with  the 
title,  '  The  Useful  Arts  considered  in  connexion  with  the  Applications 
of  Science.' 


iJ02  THE  MAMTFACTURE   OF   GLASS. 

calities.  among  which,  in  this  country,  the  banks  of  the 
Delaware  are  the  most  noted.  With  this  sihcious  sub- 
stance, which  is  the  basis  of  glass,  we  mix  potash  or 
soda  ;  and,  if  the  glass  be  coarse,  alkaline  ashes  of  any 
kind,  such  as  kelp,  barilla,  &c.  To  these  are  added, 
in  many  instances,  small  quantities  of  lime  and  borax, 
to  render  the  materials  more  fusible  ;  and  also,  in  some 
cases,  some  metallic  oxide,  v.hich  is  used  to  increase  the 
transparency  and  whiteness  of  the  glass,  or  to  impart 
to  it  a  peculiar  color. 

2.  Having  mixed  these  materials  carefully  together, 
we  proceed  to  apply  heat.  This,  in  the  first  instance, 
must  not  be  sufficient  to  fuse  the  materials ;  otherwise, 
the  alkali  will  be  driven  off,  before  it  can  be  combined 
with  the  silica.  At  this  stage,  heat  is  used  merely  to 
expel  the  carbonic  acid,  and  other  gaseous  and  volatile 
matters,  which  would  otherwise  prove  troublesome,  by 
causing  the  materials  to  swell  up  while  fusing.  It  is 
gradually  increased,  and  the  materials  constantly  stir- 
red, for  some  hours,  until  they  unite  into  a  soft  adhe- 
sive mass.  The  alkali  having  gradually  combined  with 
the  silicious  earth,  the  homogeneous  mass,  thus  formed, 
is  called  frit,  and  the  process  by  which  it  is  procured, 
fritting.  The  frit  is  now  placed  in  a  crucible,  made 
of  the  most  refractory  clays  and  sand,  and  deposited 
in  the  melting  furnace.  A  quantity  of  old  glass  is 
commonly  placed  upon  the  top  of  the  frit,  and  the  heat 
of  the  furnace  is  raised  to  its  greatest  height,  at  which 
state  it  is  continued  thirty  or  forty  hours.  During  this 
period,  the  materials  become  perfectly  united,  and  form 
a  transparent  uniform  mass,  free  from  specks  and  bub- 
ble. The  whole  is  then  suffered  to  cool  a  little,  by 
slackening  the  heat  of  the  furnace,  until  it  acquires 
sufficient  tenacity  to  be  wrought. 

3.  Glass  is  wrought  by  blowing,  casting,  and  mould- 
ing. Blowiiig  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  opera- 
tions connected  with  this  manufacture.  The  workman 
is  provided  with  a  long  iron  tube,  one  end  of  which  he 
thrusts  into  the  melted  glass,  turning  it  round  until  a 


BLOWING,  CASTING,  AND  MOULDING.  203 

certain  quantity,  sufficient  for  the  purj)ose,  is  gathered, 
or  adiieres  to  the  extremity.  The  tube  is  then  with- 
drawn from  the  furnace,  and  the  lump  of  glass  which 
adheres  is  rolled  upon  a  smooth  iron  table,  and  the 
workman  blows  strongly  with  his  mouth,  through  the 
tube,  by  which  the  glass  is  gradually  inflated,  like  a 
bladder.  The  inflation  is  assisted  by  the  heat,  which 
causes  the  air  and  moisture  of  the  breath  to  expand 
with  great  power,  and  enables  the  workman  to  give  the 
glass  any  form  he  may  choose.  Whenever  the  glass 
becomes  so  stitV,  from  cooling,  as  to  render  the  inflation 
difficult,  it  is  again  held  over  the  fire,  to  soften  it.  If 
icindow  glass  is  to  be  formed,  the  blowing  is  repeated, 
until  the  globe  is  expanded  to  the  requisite  thinness.  It 
is  then  received  by  another  workman,  upon  an  iron  rod, 
while  the  blowing-iron  is  detached.  It  is  now  open- 
ed at  its  extremity  :  and,  by  means  of  the  centrifugal 
force  communicated  by  rapid  whirling,  it  is  spread  into 
a  smooth,  uniform  sheet,  of  equal  thickness  throughout, 
excepting  a  protuberance  at  the  centre,  where  the  iron 
rod  was  attached.  This  protuberance  is  called  a  bidVs 
ejje  :  and  being  in  the  centre,  no  very  large  squares  can 
be  obtained  from  these  circular  plates.  Hence,  when 
larger  sizes  are  wanted,  it  is  usual  to  blow  them  in  the 
form  of  cylinders,  not  more  than  four  feet  long.  When 
plates  of  still  larger  dimensions  are  made,  it  must  be 
efiected  by  casting.  The  glass  is  melted  in  great 
quantities,  in  large  pots  or  reservoirs,  until  it  is  in  a 
state  of  perfect  fusion,  in  which  condition  it  is  kept  for 
a  long  time.  It  is  then  drawn  out,  by  means  of  iron 
cisterns,  of  considerable  size,  which  are  lowered  into 
the  furnace,  filled,  and  raised  out  by  machinery.  The 
glass  is  poured  out,  from  these  cisterns,  upon  tables  of 
polished  copper,  of  large  size,  having  a  rim  elevated  as 
liigh  as  the  intended  thickness  of  the  plate.  In  order 
to  spread  it  perfectly,  and  to  make  the  two  surfaces 
parallel,  a  heavy  roller,  of  polished  copper,  weighing 
five  hundred  pounds  or  more,  is  passed  over  the  plate, 
resting  on  the  rims,  at  the  edges.     The  glass,  which  is 


204  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  GLASS. 

beginning  to  grow  stiff,  is  pressed  down  and  spread 
equally,  the  excess  being  drawn  before  the  roller,  until 
it  falls  off  at  the  extremity  of  the  table.  When  orna- 
mental forms  are  to  be  impressed  upon  the  surface  of 
glass  vessels,  it  is  effected  by  using  metalhc  moidds, 
into  which  the  glass,  while  in  a  melted  state,  is  blown, 
until  it  receives  the  impression  on  the  outside.  This 
process  has  been  essentially  improved,  by  the  manu- 
turers  of  American  glass,  v»ho,  in  moulding,  subject  the 
material  to  pressure  on  the  inside  and  outside  (at  the 
same  time)  of  different  parts  of  a  mould,  which  are 
brought  suddenly  together  by  mechanical  power. 

4.  When,  through  any  of  these  methods,  the  glass  has 
been  brought  to  the  requisite  form,  it  is  next  subjected 
to  the  operation  called  annealing,  which  consists  in 
removing  the  glass  into  a  furnace,  whose  heat  is  not 
sufficiently  intense  to  melt  it.  and  gradually  withdraw- 
ing the  article  from  the  hottest  to  a  cooler  part  of  the 
anneaUng  chamber,  till  it  is  cold  enough  to  be  taken 
out  for  use.  This  process  is  indispensable  to  the  dura- 
bihty  of  the  glass ;  for,  if  cooled  too  suddenly,  it  be- 
comes extremely  brittle,  and  flies  to  pieces  upon  the 
least  touch  of  any  hard  substance.  This  effect  is 
shown  in  the  substance  called  Rupert's  drops,  which 
are  made  by  cooling,  suddenlv,  drops  of  green  glass, 
by  letting  them  fall  into  cold  water.  These  drops  fly 
to  pieces,  v.'ith  an  explosion,  whenever  the  smaller  ex- 
tremities are  broken.  The  Bologna  phials,  and  some 
other  vessels  of  unannealed  glass,  break  into  a  thousand 
pieces,  if  a  flint,  or  other  hard  and  angular  substance, 
is  dropped  into  them.  This  phenomenon  seems  to 
depend  upon  some  permanent  and  strong  inequality 
of  pressure  :  for,  v>hen  these  drops  are  heated  so  red  as 
to  be  soft,  and  left  to  cool  gradually,  the  propert}'  of 
bursting  is  lost,  and  the  specific  gi-avity  of  the  drops  is 
increased. 

5.  To  anneal  'I g.  succeed  the  processes  of  grinding 
and  cutting.  The  object  of  the  first  is  to  polish  tlie 
surface  of  the  glass,  so  as  to  fit  it  for  mirrors,  (to.     It 


GRINDING,   CUTTING,  AND  COLORING.  205 

IS  performed  in  a  manner  very  similar  to  that  employed 
m  polishing  marble,  except  that  the  glass,  being  a  hard- 
er substance,  requires  more  labor  and  nicety  in  the  op- 
eration. The  plate  to  be  polished  is  first  cemented  to 
a  table  of  wood  or  stone,  with  plaster  of  Paris.  A 
quantity  of  wet  sand  or  emery  is  spread  upon  it,  and 
another  glass  plate,  similarly  cemented  to  another  wood- 
en surface,  is  brought  in  contact  with  it.  The  two 
plates  are  then  rubbed  together,  until  the  surfaces  have 
become  materially  smooth  and  plane.  The  emery  which 
is  first  used  is  succeeded  by  emery  of  a  finer  kind,  and 
the  last  polish  is  given  by  putty,  or  the  oxide  of  iron, 
called  colcothar.  When  one  surface  has  become  per- 
fectly polished,  the  cement  is  removed,  the  plate  turn- 
ed, and  the  opposite  side  polished  in  the  same  way. 
In  some  cases,  pure  flint,  reduced  to  powder,  is  substi- 
tuted for  emery.  The  advantage  of  it  consists  in  the 
fact,  that  the  mixture  of  glass  and  flint,  which  is  left 
after  the  operation,  is  valuable  for  forming  fresh  glass. 

Cutting  is  a  species  of  grinding,  by  which  successive 
portions  of  glass  are  ground  away,  andHigures  are  given 
it,  which  appear  as  if  made  by  the  incision  of  a  sharp  in- 
strUiY.ent.  An  establishment  for  cutting  glass  contains 
a  great  number  of  wheels  of  stone,  metal,  and  wood, 
which  arc  made  to  revolve  rapidly  by  a  steam-engine, 
or  other  power.  The  first,  or  rough  cutting,  is  some- 
times given  by  wheels  of  stone,  resembling  grindstones. 
Afterwards,  wheels  of  iron  are  used,  having  their  edges 
covered  with  sharp  sand  or  emery,  in  difterent  states 
of  fineness.  The  last  polish  is  given  by  brush  wheels, 
covered  with  a  putty,  which  is  an  oxide  of  tin  and  lead. 
To  prevent  the  friction  from  exciting  so  much  heat,  as 
to  endanger  the  glass,  a  small  stream  of  water  continu- 
ally drops  u])on  the  surface  of  tlie  wheel. 

6.  Coloring. — We  have  already  stated,  that  the 
beautiful  colors  imparted  to  glass  beads,  enamelling, 
&.C.,  were  produced  by  various  metallic  oxides,  melted 
with  the  other  ingredients,  and  combining  in  intimate 
union  with    them.      Another   method   of  coloring   is 

18  S.   A. 


206  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  GLASS. 

termed  staining;  and  consists  in  applying  some  color 
superficially,  which  vitrifies  on  being  exposed  to  heat, 
and  incorporates  with  the  substance  of  the  glass.  This 
art  was  employed  Aery  much  by  the  ancients,  in  deco- 
rating the  windows  of  churches,  and  cathedrals.  It  is 
often  described  as  being  no  longer  known  ;  but  errone- 
ously, since  nothing  has  been  lost  but  the  art  of  commu- 
nicating certain  peculiar  colors,  which  are  found  in  the 
windows  of  the  ancient  cathedrals. 

Before  dismissing  the  subject  of  glass,  we  may  notice 
a  combination,  which  has  been  invented  within  the  last 
century,  and  which  has  proved  of  inestimable  impor- 
tance, in  the  construction  of  telescopes.  When  flint 
glass  (that  is,  a  very  clear  and  comparatively  soft  glass, 
so  called,  because  it  was  formerly  made  of  pulverized 
flint)  is  formed  into  single  lenses,  for  telescopes,  it  is 
found  that  the  objectglass  (that  is,  the  one  neeirest  the 
object)  imparts  colors  to  the  image  formed  by  light 
passing  through  it,  owing  to  a  difi'erence  in  the  refrangi- 
bility  of  the  rays  which  compose  white  light.  In  this 
way,  the  vision  feecomes  indistinct,  and  the  inconven- 
ience was  so  great,  as  to  render  the  refracting  telescope 
nearly  useless ;  until  an  English  artist,  Dollond,*  (who, 
like  many  English  artists,  was  a  man  of  science,  as  well 
as  practical  skill.)  discovered  a  method  of  obviating  it. 
This  consists  in  making  the  objectglass  in  three  separ- 
ate parts,  which  fit  exactly  together,  and  which  consist 
of  different  kinds  of  glass.  The  dispersion  occasioned 
by  the  first  glass  is  partially  corrected  by  the  second, 
and  still  more  by  the  third ;  so  that  the  light,  at  last, 
emerges  from  the  lens  perfectly  colorless,  and  forms  a 
distinct  image  ;  and  hence  it  is  called  the  achromatic 
(or  colorless)  glass.  It  is  an  interesting  fact,  that  the 
human  eye  is  constructed  of  lenses  combined  in  a  man- 
ner somewhat  similar,  and  is  supposed  to  have  furnish- 
ed to  the  artist  the  first  hint  of  his  invention.  The 
cavity  of  the  eye,  that  most  perfect  of  all  optical  instru- 

*  For  a  notice  of  Mr.  Dollond,  see  '  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under 
Difficnities,'  vol.  ii,  being  vol.  xv.  of  '  The  Schooi.  Library.' 


POTTERY  AND  PORCELAIN".  207 

ments.  is  occupied  by  three  substances,  called  humors, 
which  serve.  like  a  lens,  to  refract  the  rays  of  light,  and 
to  form  an  image  on  tiie  retina.  Tiie  humors  are  of 
different  refractive  powers,  and  have  been  supposed, 
by  their  successive  action  on  the  light,  to  correct  anv 
irregularity  which  might  otherwise  take  place.* 


CHAPTER  XI. 

POTTERY  AND   PORCELAIN. 

Certain  clays  have  a  property,  which  renders  them 
extremely  valuable  in  the  arts.  They  soften  in  water, 
and  allow  themselves  to  be  kneaded  and  formed  into 
moulds.  These  moulds,  when  exposed  to  heat,  acquire 
a  durable    hardness,  which  fits  them    for    being  used 

*  It  is  not  certain  that  Dollond  received  the  first  hint  for  his  great 
invention  from  observing  the  structare  of  the  eye  ;  and  it  now  seems 
probable,  that  the  resemblance  referred  to  in  the  text  is  rather  appa- 
rent, than  real.  Dr.  Brewster  has  discovered  that  the  human  eye  is 
not  achromatic  ;  the  deviation  of  the  differently-colored  ravs  being 
too  small  to  require  any  correction.  That  no  provision  for  such 
coTection  exists  ia  the  eye,  is  inferred  from  the  fact,  that,  if  we  shut 
up  all  the  pupil,  except  a  portion  of  its  edge,  or  look  past  the  finger, 
held  near  the  eye,  till  the  finger  almost  hides  a  narrow  line  of  white 
light,  we  shall  see  a  distinct  prismatic  spectrum  of  this  line,  contain- 
ing all  the  dilFerent  colors  ;  an  effect  which  could  hardly  take  place, 
if  the  eye  were  achromatic. 

An  improvement,  which  was  recently  made  by  M.  Guinand,  of 
Switzerland,  in  the  manufacture  of  flint  glass  for  lenses,  has  contrib- 
uted, nearly  as  much  as  the  invention  of  Dollond,  to  restore  the  re- 
fracting telescope  to  use.  The  oxide  of  lead,  which  has  been  used, 
of  late,  much  more  freely  ihan  formerly,  in  making  glass,  because  it 
improves  its  whiteness  and  lustre,  serves  to  impair  the  value  of  the 
substance  for  optical  purposes,  by  preventing  that  parallel  arrange- 
ment of  layers,  of  different  densities,  which  is  necessary,  in  order  to 
prevent  flaws.  This  difficulty  has  been  so  far  obviated,  that  M. 
Guinand  has  produced  objectglasses  for  telescopes,  nearlv  twelve 
inches  in  diameter,  and  free  from  flaws  ;  and  it  is  stated,  that,  while 
out  of  ten  objectglasses,  made  of  English  or  French  flint  glass, 
only  one,  or  two,  at  most,  were  found  ser%-iceable,  eight  or  nine,  out 
of  the  same  number,  made  by  Af.  Guinand,  turned  out  good.  His 
method  is  unknown. 


208  POTTERY  AND  PORCELAIN. 

either  in  buildings,  or  in  forming  utensils  and  vessels. 
Brick,  tiles,  and  the  lining  of  furnaces,  are  familiar 
specimens  of  this  art.  They  are  formed  of  coarse 
common  clay,  which  is  a  mixture  of  argillaceous  earth 
and  sand,  and  are  apt,  from  the  iron  which  the  clay 
contains,  to  turn  red  in  burning.  Earthen  and  crock- 
ery ware  form  other  wellknown  specimens, — the  first 
being  composed  of  common  clay,  similar  to  that  of 
which  bricks  are  made,  and  the  latter  of  the  purer  and 
whiter  clays,  in  which  iron  exists  only  in  small  quanti- 
ties. Porcelain,  the  most  beautiful  and  expensive  kind 
of  pottery,  is  formed  only  from  argillaceous  minerals, 
of  extreme  delicacy,  united  with  silicious  earths,  which 
serve  to  render  them  semi-transparent,  by  means  of  its 
vitrification.  The  clay,  which  is  used  in  pottery,  causes 
the  operation  to  differ  essentially  from  that  employed 
in  making  glass.  There,  the  substances  are  softened 
by  heat,  and  wrought  at  a  high  temperature ;  whereas, 
in  this  case,  they  are  wrought  while  cold,  and  after- 
v.ards  hardened  by  heat.  It  is  impossible  to  explain 
all  the  details  which  enter  into  the  manufacture  of  the 
different  kinds  of  pottery.  We  shall  merely  describe 
those  principles  and  processes  which  are  common  to 
them  all,  referring  the  reader,  as  in  the  last  Chapter,  to 
'  Bigelow's  Technology. ^^  These  may  be  arranged 
under  the  several  heads  of.  I.  Preparing  the  clay.  II. 
xMoulding.  or  shaping.  III.  Burning.  IV.  Printing. 
V.  Glazing. 

I.  Preparing  the  clay. — This  consists  in  adding  to 
it,  in  certain  cases,  a  portion  of  silicious  earth,  which 
serves  to  increase  the  firmness  of  the  ware,  and  to  ren- 
der it  less  liable  to  shrink  and  crack,  on  exposure  to 
heat ;  and  likewise  partially  to  vitrify  its  surface.  In 
the  common  clays,  this  artificial  mixture  of  silica  is  un- 
necessary, since  they  have  it  in  sufficient  quantities  al- 
ready. In  the  finer  clays,  it  is  always  required.  The 
materia  s  being  mixed  with  water,  are  formed  into  a 

*  See  note  on  page  201. 


MOULDING  OR  SHAPING  THE  CLAY.  20^ 

paste,  which  is  thoroughly  beaten  and  kneaded,  to  ren- 
der it  ductile,  and  to  drive  out  the  air.  This  operation 
is  performed  in  different  ways,  according  to  the  fine- 
ness of  the  fabric.  In  the  celebrated  manufactory  of 
Mr.  Wedgcwood,  in  England,  the  clay  is  brought  into 
a  state  of  minute  division,  by  machinery.  A  series  of 
iron  blades,  or  knives,  are  fixed  to  an  upright  axis,  and 
made  to  revolve  in  a  cylinder,  intersecting  or  passing 
between  another  set  of  knives,  which  are  fixed  to  the 
cylinder.  The  clay,  being  sufficiently  divided  by  the 
continual  intersection  of  these  blades,  is  transferred  to 
a  vat,  and  agitated  with  water,  till  it  assumes  the  con- 
sistence of  pulp,  so  thin,  tiiat  the  stony  and  coarser  par- 
ticles can  subside,  after  a  little  rest,  to  the  bottom,  leav- 
ing the  finer  clay  suspended.  This  last  is  then  poured 
ofl',  and  suffered  to  subside  ;  after  which,  it  is  passed 
through  sieves  of  difl'erent  fineness,  and  becomes  suffi- 
ciently fine  for  use.  To  this  pulp  is  then  added  about 
one  fifth  as  much  pulp  of  pounded  flint,  prepared  in 
the  same  manner ;  and  the  mixture  is  then  exposed  to 
evaporation,  by  a  gentle  heat,  until  the  superfluous 
water  is  dissipated,  and  the  mass  reduced  to  a  proper 
consistency  to  work.  To  produce  a  uniformity  in  the 
thickness  of  the  material,  it  is  taken  out,  in  successive 
pieces,  which  are  repeatedly  divided,  and  struck  or 
pressed  together,  until  every  part  becomes  blended 
with  the  rest. 

II.  Moulding,  or  shaping. — This  is  effected  by 
throwing,  pressing,  or  casting.  In  throwing,  a  piece 
of  clay,  of  sufficient  size  to  form  the  vessel,  is  placed 
upon  a  sort  of  table,  or  wheel,  to  which  a  rotary  motion 
is  given  by  the  feet  of  the  operator,  or  an  assistant,  and 
in  some  cases  by  a  steam-engine.  The  potter  begins 
to  shape  the  clay  with  his  hands,  which  are  wet,  to 
prevent  its  adhering.  The  rotary  motion  of  the  wheel 
gives  it  a  circular  form,  and  it  is  gradually  wrought  up 
to  the  intended  shape,  a  tool  being  occasionally  used 
to  assist  in  the  finishing.  The  handles,  and  other  sim- 
ilar appendages,  are  made  bv  forcing  the  clay,  with  a 
IS* 


210  POTTERY  AND  PORCELAIN. 

piston,  through  an  aperture  of  the  requisite  size  and 
shape.  When  formed,  the  handles  are  cemented  to 
the  \varCj  by  a  thin  mixture  of  the  clay  with  water, 
which  the  workmen  call  slip. 

As  the  wheel,  or  table,  can  only  be  used  in  making 
vessels  of  a  circular  shape,  when  the  form  is  diflerent, 
the  vessel  must  be  made  by  2^}'essing  or  casting.  In 
pressing,  moulds  are  made  of  plaster  of  Paris,  half  of 
the  figure  being  on  one  side  of  the  mould,  and  the 
other  half  on  the  other  side.  These  fit  accurately  to- 
gether. The  clay  being  first  made  into  flat  pieces,  of 
the  thickness  of  the  article,  one  of  them  is  pressed  into 
one  side  of  the  mould,  and  the  other  into  the  other 
side.  The  superfluous  clay  being  cut  away,  the  tw^o 
sides  of  the  mould  are  brought  together,  to  unite  the 
two  halves  of  the  vessel.  The  mould  being  then  sep- 
arated from  the  clay,  the  article  is  complete,  as  to  form. 

In  casting,  the  clay,  in  the  state  of  pulp,  sufficiently 
thin  to  flow,  is  poured  into  moulds  made  of  plaster,  by 
which  the  superfluous  water  being  rapidly  absorbed,  the 
clay  is  deposited,  to  acquire  sufficient  solidity  to  preserve 
the  shape  communicated  by  the  mould.  When  the 
vessels  are  finished,  as  to  form,  they  are  dried,  either  by 
exposure  to  the  air  and  sun,  or  by  artificial  heat,  in  a 
room  of  the  temperature  of  eighty  or  ninety  degrees. 

III.  Burning. — This  is  necessary,  to  give  the  re- 
quisite hardness.  Vessels  merely  dried  after  the  man- 
ner of  some  rude  nations,  in  ancient  and  modern  times, 
are  extremely  frangible.  The  burning  is  performed  in 
ovens  or  kilns ;  and.  in  the  better  kinds  of  w^are,  the 
articles  are  enclosed  in  cases  or  boxes  of  burnt  clay, 
called  saggars,  and,  by  means  of  flame  circulating 
among  these  cases,  are  raised  to  a  red  heat.  The  fire 
is  kept  up,  from  twenty-four  to  sixty  hours,  and  the 
saggars  suffered  to  cool  before  they  are  removed.  On 
the  intensity  and  duration  of  the  heat,  depend,  of 
course,  the  strength  and  solidity  of  the  ware.  When 
taken  from  the  oven,  the  ware  is  extremely  bibulous, 
— that  is,  capable  of  absorbing  a  great  deal  of  water. 


GLAZING.  211 

This  is  the  case  with  our  common  brown  and  red 
earthen  ware,  which  absorbs  water  in  such  quantities, 
that  vessels  in  this  state  are  used  as  coolers,  being  kept 
saturated  with  water,  which,  as  it  passes  constantly  to 
the  outer  surface,  generates  cold  by  its  evaporation. 
This  property  of  absorbing  water  renders  necessary  the 
next  operation,  which  is  termed 

IV.  Glazing. — This  consists  in  covering  the  vessel 
with  a  vitreous  coating.  For  this  purpose,  ground  flint 
is  mixed  with  an  equal  proportion  of  some  metallic  ox- 
ide, such  as  the  oxide  of  lead,  if  we  wish  a  yellow  glaz- 
ing ;  oxide  of  tin,  if  we  wish  it  white  ;  and  if  black,  ox- 
ide of  manganese.  Tiiese  materials  are  pounded  to  an 
extremely  fine  powder,  and  mixed  with  water,  to  form 
a  thin  liquid.  The  ware  is  dipped  into  this  fluid,  and 
drawn  out ;  whereupon,  the  moisture  is  absorbed  by 
the  clay,  and  the  glazing  particles  remain  upon  the  sur- 
face. These  are  afterwards  melted,  by  exposing  the 
vessel  a  second  time  to  the  heat  of  the  kiln,  and  they 
then  constitute  a  uniform  and  durable  vitreous  coating. 
In  the  European  and  American  manufactories,  they  are 
obliged  to  burn  the  vessels,  before  glazing  them,  be- 
cause the  composition,  of  which  the  vessel  is  made,  is 
not  rendered  capable,  merely  by  drying,  of  resisting 
water,  so  as  to  bear  dipi)ing  in  the  glazing  fluid.  In 
this  respect,  the  Chinese  have  great  advantages  ;  their 
materials  being  such,  that,  after  drying,  they  will  bear 
immersion  in  liquid  without  injury.  By  this  means,  a 
great  amount  of  fuel  is  saved.  It  is  proper  to  add,  that 
the  ware  commonly  called  stone  ware  does  not  require 
to  be  mixed  with  metallic  oxides,  but  affords  the  mate- 
rials of  its  own  glazing,  by  a  vitrification  of  its  surfaces. 
When  the  furnace  in  which  it  is  burnt  arrives  at  its 
greatest  heat,  a  quantity  of  muriate  of  soda,  or  common 
salt,  is  thrown  into  the  body  of  the  kiln.  The  salt  rises 
in  vapor,  and  envelopes  the  hot  ware,  and,  by  the  com- 
bination of  its  alkali  with  the  silicious  particles  on  the 
surface  of  the  ware,  a  perfect  vitrification  is  produced. 
This  glazing,  consisting  of  an  earthy  glass,  is  insoluble 


212  POTTERY  AXD  PORCELAIN. 

by  most  chemical  agents,  and  hence  has  great  advan 
tages  over  the  glazing  formed  of  lead,  which  is  apt,  by 
the  dissolving  of  the  lead,  to  communicate  a  poisonous 
quality  to  the  liquids  contained  in  the  vessel. 

Where  colors  or  pictures  are  to  be  imprinted  on  the 
ware,  it  must  be  done,  in  most  cases,  previous  to  the 
glazing.  In  China,  Europe,  and  America,  if  elaborate 
pieces  of  workmanship  are  to  be  produced,  the  design, 
or  drawing,  is  executed  beforeiiand,  with  the  pencil. 
But  in  the  common  figured  white  ware,  the  designs  are 
first  engraved  upon  copper,  from  which  an  impression  is 
taken,  on  thin  paper,  with  a  color  formed  of  some  me- 
tallic oxide.  This  paper  is  then  moistened,  apphed 
closely  to  the  unglazed  surface,  and  rubbed  in,  so  that 
the  coloring  matter  may  be  absorbed.  The  paper  is 
then  washed  off,  leaving  the  printed  figure  transferred 
to  the  sides  of  the  vessels,* 

Chinese  porcelain  differs  from  the  finer  kinds  of  pot- 
tery merely  as  to  its  materials,  which  are  two  varieties  of 
feldspar,  abounding  in  China,  but  not  found  in  Europe 
or  in  this  Country.  Materials,  however,  of  nearly  the 
same  kind,  have  been  discovered,  and  porcelain  is  man- 
ufactured in  Philadelphia,  which,  in  respect  to  the  ele- 
gance of  its  forms,  and  the  beauty  of  the  designs  which 
are  executed  upon  it,  excels  that  of  China.  But  in 
point  of  hardness,  durability,  transparency,  strength, 
and  the  permanency  of  the  glaze,  the  Oriental  manu- 
facture has  not  yet  been  equalled. 

It  must  be  evident  to  the  reader,  on  the  slightest  re- 
flection, that  the  arts  described  in  this  and  the  preced- 
ing Chapter,  are  most  intimately  allied  with  chemical 
science.  Their  progress  has  been  proportioned  to  the 
intelligence  and  scientific  skill  which  has  been  applied 
to  tliem.  It  is  less  than  seventy-five  years,  since,  in 
England,  the  manufacture  of  pottery  was  limited  to  the 
coarsest  kinds  of  crockery  ware,  and  to  small  quantities 
even  of  these.     Like  our  own  country,  it  was  depen- 

*  Transferring,  as  it  is  called,  is  on  mnch  the  same  principle. 


COPYING,   INCLUDING   CASTING,  I:TC.  213 

dent  for  such  articles  on  Holland,  Saxony,  and  China. 
Now,  England  exports,  annually,  near  forty  millions  of 
pieces  of  earthen  ware,  to  all  parts  of  the  world ;  and 
many  of  these  are  of  a  very  fine  quality.  Much  of 
this  improvement  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  increased 
resources,  furnished  by  machinery  and  a  knowledge  of 
chemistry.  Mr.  Wedgewood,  whose  name  has  already 
occurred  in  this  Chapter,  and  who  may  be  said  to  have 
created  the  manufacture  of  fine  pottery  in  England, 
not  only  was  himself  a  man  of  science,  but  employed, 
in  his  experiments,  the  constant  aid  of  a  distinguished 
chemist.  In  iiis  attempts  to  improve  the  art,  he  was 
not  content  to  grope  in  the  dark,  in  the  hope  that  he 
miglit  blunder  upon  his  object ;  but  he  sought  in  the  na- 
ture of  his  agents,  carefully  observed,  for  rules  to  guide 
his  experiments  and  processes.  The  consequence  is 
seen,  in  the  abundance  and  beauty  of  the  important 
fabric  with  which  he  enriched  and  benefited  his  coun- 
try. Had  he,  ahd  his  successors  in  the  same  kind  of 
manufacture,  been  satisfied  to  tread  in  the  old  paths,  or 
to  adventure  improvements  without  the  light  of  science, 
they  might  have  left  that  manufacture  where  it  was  fifty 
years  since,  and  we  might  now  be  compelled  to  use  an 
inferior  article,  and  yet  pay  for  it  a  vastly  iiigher  price. 


CHAPTER  Xn. 

COPYING,   INCLUDING  CASTING,  PRINTING,   ENGRAVING,    ETC. 

One  very  important  object  in  the  arts  is,  to  produce 
copies  of  an  article ;  or,  in  other  words,  to  produce  a 
great  number  of  articles  which  are  exactly  similar  in 
form,  size,  and  finish.  To  do  this  by  hand  would  be 
not  only  difficult,  but  impossible.  Hence  the  method 
of  copying,  by  casts  and  superficial  impressions,  has 
been  adopted, — an  expedient  which  strikingly  resembles 
machinery,  in  the  facility  and  cheapness  with  which  it 


214  COPYING,   INCLUDING   CASTING,   ETC. 

produces  the  most  finished  specimens  of  workmanship 
We  have  ah-eady  described  the  manner  in  which  cop- 
ies are  taken,  in  the  manufacture  of  some  kinds  of  pot- 
tery and  glass,  and  also  in  the  metallurgic  arts  ;  print- 
ing, engraving,  and  stamping,  furnish  us  with  other 
familiar  examples. 

We  propose,  in  this  Chapter,  to  make  a  few  remarks, 
I.  on  the  j>atterns,  from  which  the  articles  are  made, 
and  II.  on  the  methods  of  taking  the  impressions. 

I.  The  i^atterns  are  formed  of  wood,  metal,  or  plas- 
ter, according  to  the  degree  of  pressure  which  is  to  be 
applied  to  them,  and  to  the  temperature  at  which  the 
copy  must  be  taken.  If  great  pressure  is  necessary, 
plaster  would  not  be  sufficiently  strong,  and  hence  the 
pattern  must  be  formed  of  metal,  or,  where  the  pressure 
is  less  severe,  of  wood.  So,  again,  if  the  material  is 
applied  to  the  pattern,  when  very  hot,  the  latter  must 
evidently  be  composed  of  some  substance,  not  liable, 
on  the  one  hand,  to  take  fire,  nor,  on  the  other,  to 
crack,  and  fall  to  pieces.  In  casting  iron,  and  other 
metals,  the  pattern  is  usually  made  up  in  sand,  and  is, 
in  fact,  merely  a  copy,  from  another  pattern,  which  has 
been  previously  executed  in  wood  or  metal.  This  first 
pattern,  being  placed  in  a  mass  of  soft  sand,  sufficiently 
damp  to  adhere  a  little,  is  made,  by  pressure,  to  com- 
municate its  form,  and  is  then  removed.  Into  the  cav- 
ities, which  it  leaves  in  the  sand,  is  poured  the  melted 
metal,  which,  on  cooling,  will  assume,  of  course,  the 
same  figure  with  the  original  pattern.  Plaster  is  gen- 
erally used  where  no  great  pressure  is  needed  in  taking 
the  impression,  and  when  the  pattern  has  to  be  taken 
directly  from  the  object.  Thus,  in  taking  busts  of  the 
human  face  or  form,  plaster,  when  moistened,  will, 
from  its  plastic  nature,  adapt  itself  exactly  to  the  object, 
and  is  therefore  peculiarly  fitted  for  this  purpose.  It 
is  removed  in  separate  pieces  from  the  face,  and  then 
reunited,  to  form  the  mould  for  future  copies.  In 
stamping,  printing,  and  engraving,  the  pattern  is  al- 
most always  formed  of  metal ;  since  it  is  better  fitted 


CHEMICAL  ENGRAVING.  215 

both  to  take  a  high  polish,  and  to  bear  great  pressure. 
It  may  be  interesting,  to  be  informed  of  the  metliod 
pursued  in  forming  engj'avers^  plates  and  printing 
types,  which,  of  all  patterns,  are  the  most  useful. 

1.  The  plates  on  which  the  engraver  draws  his  de- 
signs are  generally  metal,  though  in  some  cases  he  em- 
ploys wood  and  stone  ;  and  hence  the  two  species  of 
engraving,  called  wood-engraving  and  lithograph}/. 
The  lines  are  drawn,  in  some  cases,  hy  mechanical,  and 
in  others,  by  chemical,  agents.  In  mechanical  engrav- 
ing, the  artist  uses  a  sharp  instrument  called  a  graver, 
with  which  he  eitiier  cuts  out  the  parts  which  arc  to  ap- 
pear black  or  shaded  in  the  picture,  or  leaves  them  rais- 
ed by  removing  tiie  intermediate  parts.  In  the  finest 
kinds,  called  line-engraving  and  stippling,  the  shad- 
ed parts  are  cut  out ;  in  mezzotinto,  which  resembles 
painting  in  India  ink,  and  also  in  icood  cuts,  they  are 
raised.  In  the  first  of  these,  (mezzotinto.)  the  whole 
surface  is  roughened  with  a  toothed  instrument,  called 
a  needle,  and  the  part  corresponding  to  fight  is  then 
rubbed  down.  In  w^ood-engraving,  the  part  left  light 
is  cut  out. 

In  chemical  engraving,  the  artist,  in  order  to  pro- 
duce lines,  avails  himself  of  the  chemical  affinity  which 
subsists  between  some  of  his  materials.  The  most  fa- 
miliar examples  of  this  are,  etching  and  lithography ; 
to  which  we  may  now  add  the  art  of  galvanic  engrav- 
ing. In  etching,  the  engraver  having  prepared  his 
plate,  as  in  common  engraving,  proceeds  to  cover  it, 
throughout  its  whole  surface,  with  a  thin  coating  of 
varnish,  made  of  wax,  mastic,  and  asphaltum. — some- 
times, of  rosin  and  animal  oil.  This  varnish  is  black- 
ened by  the  smoke  of  a  lamp,  in  order  that  the  operator 
may  see  the  progress  and  state  of  his  work.  He  then 
takes  a  needle,  and,  supporting  his  hand  on  a  ruler, 
makes  his  drawing  in  the  coat  of  the  varnish,  being 
always  careful  to  penetrate  to  the  copper.  Having 
completed  his  design,  he  pours  a  quantity  of  diluted 
nitric  acid  over  lire  plate,  which  is  prevented  from  es- 


216  COPYING,   INCLUDING   CASTING,   EIC. 

caping,  by  a  wall  of  soft  wax,  surrounding  the  plate. 
By  tlie  action  of  tlie  acid,  all  the  lines  or  points,  where 
the  copper  is  exposed  by  the  strokes  of  the  needle, 
are  bitten  in,  as  the  artist  terms  it ;  that  is,  impres 
sions  are  made,  as  if  by  cutting.  When  the  acid  has 
acted  for  some  time,  it  is  poured  off,  and  those  parts 
which  are  to  be  most  lightly  shaded  are  stopped  out  (or 
covered)  with  varnish,  to  protect  them  from  further 
action.  Xew  acid  is  poured  for  the  second  shades, 
which  are  next  stopped  out,  and  so  the  processes  are 
repeated,  alternately,  till  the  piece  is  finished,  and  the 
varnish  is  cleaned  oft'.  Such  engravings  must  evidently 
be  coarse. 

In  lithography,  a  smooth  slab  is  selected,  of  a  spe- 
cies of  marble,  which  will  imbibe  water,  so  that  the  ink 
used  in  printing  will  not  adhere.  On  this,  the  lines  to 
be  copied,  whether  of  writing  or  of  a  picture,  are  drawn 
with  a  composition,  which  has  the  double  property  of 
adhering  to  the  stone,  and  of  attaching  to  itself  the 
printing  ink.  This  composition,  which  is  made  of 
soap,  tallow,  white  wax,  shell  lac,  and  lampblack,  is 
used  in  a  liquid  form,  so  as  to  be  applied  with  a  pen, 
or  a  delicate  brush  ;  or  it  is  solid,  and  moulded  into  the 
form  of  a  crayon,  or  pencil.  The  writing  or  figure  on 
the  stone  must  be  reversed  :  and  the  beauty  of  the  copy 
will  correspond  to  the  delicacy  of  this  drawing.  When 
the  stone  is  thus  prepared,  the  impression  is  taken  in  a 
manner  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  copperplate  print- 
ing. The  stone  being  wet  with  a  sponge,  the  ink  is 
applied  over  the  whole  surface,  but  adheres  only  to  the 
composition,  leaving  the  intermediate  parts  perfectly 
clean :  a  sheet  of  paper  is  immediately  placed  upon  it 
and  pressed  forcibly,  and  thus  receives  a  perfect  tran- 
script of  the  figure  on  the  stone. 

In  galvanic  engraving,  the  shaded  lines  are  raised, 
being  deposited  from  a  solution  of  copper  on  a  plate  of 
the  same  metal,  by  means  of  galvanic  electricity.* 

*  A  description  of  the  process  will  be  found  in  Appendix,  VIII. 


TVPES.  217 

'2.  Types. — Tlie  movable  nletal  types,  those  used 
in  the  printing  of  books  hke  the  present,  are  themselves 
copies,  produced  by  casting  from  moulds  of  copper,  cal- 
led matrices.  The  lower  parts  of  these  matrices,  which 
bear  the  impressions  of  the  letter  or  character  intended, 
are  also  copies,  being  made  by  punching  with  steel  pun- 
ches on  which  the  same  character  exists  on  a  raised 
surface.  Nor  are  even  these  steel  punches  made  with- 
out the  aid  of  copying.  Many  of  the  cavities  which  exist 
in  them,  such  as  those  in  the  middle  of  the  punches 
for  the  letters  a,  b,  d,  g,  &.C.,  are  produced  from  other 
steel  punches,  in  which  these  parts  are  raised,  or  in  relief. 
In  forming  stereotype  plates,  the  process  of  copying 
is  carried  still  further.  The  page  to  be  stereotyped  is 
set  up  with  common  movable  types,  which  are  obtained, 
as  we  have  just  seen,  by  copying,  thrice  repeated.  On 
this  page,  plaster,  in  a  liquid  state,  is  poured,  which,  as 
it  hardens,  will  receive  a  transcript  of  the  page.  From 
these  plaster  copies,  or  moulds,  another  copy  is  taken 
in  metal,  from  which  the  printer  takes  his  printed  page. 
The  present  work  is  from  stereotype  plates.  Thus  it 
appears,  that  ordinary  types  arc  the  third  copy  from 
the  steel  punch  used  in  the  first  instance,  and  that  the 
stereotype  plate  is  the  fifth  copy ;  and  that  the  letter, 
from  the  time  it  is  first  formed,  has  to  go  through  six 
copyings,  before  it  can  reach  the  eye  of  the  reader. 
The  same  remark  applies  to  many  patterns.  They  are 
themselves  copies, — it  being  inconvenient,  owing  to  the 
material  of  which  they  are  composed,  or  to  some  other 
circumstances,  to  take  them  directly  from  the  original. 

It  is  obvious,  that  much  of  the  labor  involved  in 
copying  consists  in  forming  the  pattern.^  For  in- 
stance, the  ornamental  plates  for  a  stove,  which  are 
cast  by  four  men,  in  half  an  hour,  are  taken  from  pat- 
terns, the  making  of  which  occupied  the  same  number 
of  men  perhaps  a  year.  So  an  engraver  mav  spend  the 
labor  of  one  or  two  years,  in  preparing  a  plate,  from 
which  he  will  subsequently  take  a  hundred  impressions 
in  an  hour ;  and,  while  the  original  plate,  or  pattern 
19  s.  A. 


218  COPYING,   INCLUDING  CASTING,   ETC. 

cost  some  hundreds  of  dollars,  lie  can  afford  to  sell  iiis 
copies  for  a  few  cents.  This  fact  may  serve  to  show 
the  analogy  between  machinery  and  copying,  to  which 
we  have  already  referred.  Machines  are  often  expen- 
sive ;  but  this  expense  they  not  only  repay,  by  the  in- 
creased rapidity  and  accuracy  with  which  they  produce 
work,  but  they  enable  the  manufacturer,  by  the  same 
means,  to  afford  his  articles  at  a  less  price,  and  yet  re- 
ceive from  them  a  greater  profit. 

II.  We  will  now  describe  some  of  the  methods,  by 
which  copies  for  general  use  are  taken  from  patterns. 
The  mode  of  taking  casts  must  be  sufficiently  obvious, 
from  what  we  have  already  said.  The  other  species 
of  copying  may  be  reduced  to  four ;  namely,  Punching, 
Drawing,  Stamping,  and  Printing. 

1.  Punching. — In  this  operation,  a  steel  punch  is 
driven  by  a  blow,  or  by  pressure,  through  a  substance, 
which  is  to  be  cut  in  some  required  way.  In  some 
cases,  the  object  is  to  make  repeated  copies  of  the  same 
aperture,  and  the  substance  separated  from  the  plate  is 
rejected ;  in  other  cases,  it  is  the  small  pieces  cut  out 
which  are  the  objects  of  the  workman's  labor.  Of  the 
former  kind,  are  the  holes  which  are  punched  in  the 
iron  and  copper  plate  for  boilers,  in  colanders,  strain- 
ers, &-C.,  the  ornamental  patterns  of  open-work  which 
decorate  the  tinned  and  japanned  wares  in  general  use  ; 
the  inlaid  plates  of  brass  and  rosewood,  called  huhl 
work,  which  ornament  our  furniture,  &c.  &c.  It  should 
be  remarked,  however,  that,  in  the  last  instance,  both 
the  parts  cut  out,  and  those  which  remain,  are  in  many 
cases  employed.  The  following  are  instances  in  which 
the  only  part  made  use  of  is  that  which  is  punched 
out,  namely,  the  circular  disks  of  thin  cards,  which  are 
substituted  instead  of  paper,  for  retaining  in  its  place 
the  charge  of  a  fowlingpiece  ;  the  golden  stars,  leaves, 
and  other  devices,  sold  in  shops,  for  the  purpose  of  or- 
namenting, made  of  paper  and  pasteboard ;  the  small 
pieces  of  sheet-steel  which  compose  the  chains  used  in 
connecting  the  mainspring  and  fusee  in  watches  and 


WIRE  DRAWING.  219 

clocks,  &.C.  It  is  obvious,  that,  in  each  of  these  cases, 
but  especially  in  the  first  and  last,  it  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  the  objects  produced  should  be  of  the 
same  identical  form  and  size. 

2.  Drawing. — We  give  this  name  to  certain  proces- 
ses in  which  a  prescribed  form  is  given  to  substances, 
by  drawing  them  through  holes.  Of  this  nature  are 
ivirc-drawitig,  tube-drawing,  iron-rolling,  6lc.  &c. 
In  such  copying,  there  exists  but  little  resemblance  be- 
tween the  copy  and  the  original.  It  is  the  cross  sec- 
tion of  the  thing  produced,  w  hich  is  similar  to  the  tool 
through  w^hich  it  passes.  When  the  substance  to  be 
operated  on  is  hard,  it  frequently  passes,  in  succession, 
through  several  holes,  and  must  also,  in  some  cases,  be 
annealed  at  intervals. 

In  IV ire-drawing,  the  metal  to  be  converted  into 
wire  is  made  of  a  cylindrical  form,  and  is  then  drawn 
forcibly  through  holes,  which  gradually  diminish  in  size, 
and  are  circular,  square,  or  half-round,  according  to 
the  required  form  of  the  wire.  In  drawing  the  pinion 
wire,  which  is  used  by  clockmakers,  the  draiv-plate  has 
holes  which  resemble  a  star,  with  from  six  to  twelve 
rays.  A  short  piece  of  this  wire,  about  half  an  inch 
in  length,  becomes  a  pinion  for  a  clock,  the  leaves  of 
which,  having  passed  through  the  draw-plate,  are  al- 
ready burnished  and  finished. 

'•'  Nearly  similar,  in  its  mode  of  execution,  to  wire- 
drawing, is  the  art  of  forming  tubes  of  uniform  diame- 
ter. After  the  sheet  brass  has  been  bent  round  and 
soldered,  so  as  to  form  a  hollow  cylinder,  if  the  outside 
diameter  is  that  whicli  is  required  to  be  uniform,  it  is 
drawn  ihrougji  a  succession  of  holes,  as  in  wire-drawing. 
If  the  inside  diameter  is  to  be  uniform,  a  succession  of 
steel  cylinders,  called  triblcts,  are  drawn  through  the 
brass  tube.  In  making  tubes  for  telescopes,  it  is  nec- 
essary that  both  the  inside  and  outside  should  be  uni- 
form. A  steel  triblct  is  passed  into  the  tube,  which  is 
then  drawn  through  a  succession  of  holes,  until  the  out- 
side diameter  is  reduced  to  the  required  size.     The 


220  COPYING,   INCLUDING  CASTING,  ETC. 

metal  of  which  the  tube  is  formed  is  condensed  be- 
tween the  holes,  and  the  steel  cyhnder  within  it ;  and 
when  the  latter  is  withdrawn,  the  internal  surface  ap- 
pears polished.  The  brass  tube  is  considerably  extend- 
ed by  this  process,  sometimes  even  to  double  its  first 
length." 

"  Leaden  pipes,  for  the  conveyance  of  water,  were 
formerly  made  by  casting  ;  but  it  has  been  found,  that 
they  can  be  made  both  cheaper  and  better,  by  drawing 
them  through  holes,  in  the  manner  of  wire.  A  cylinder 
of  lead,  of  five  or  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  about 
two  feet  long,  is  cast  with  a  small  hole  through  its  axis, 
and  an  iron  triblet,  of  fifteen  feet  in  length,  is  forced 
into  the  hole.  It  is  then  drawn  through  a  series  of 
iioles,  until  the  lead  has  extended  from  one  end  to  the 
other  of  the  triblet,  and  is  of  the  proper  thickness,  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  pipe." 

"  Iron-rolling. — When  cylinders  of  iron,  of  greater 
thickness  than  wire,  are  required,  they  are  formed  by 
passing  wrought  iron  between  rollers,  each  of  which 
has  sunk  in  it  a  semi-cylindrical  groove  ;  and  as  such 
rollers  rarely  touch  accurately,  a  longitudinal  line  will 
usually  be  observed  in  iron  so  manufactured.  Bar  iron 
is  thus  shaped  into  all  the  various  forms  of  round, 
square,  half-round,  oval,  &c.  in  which  it  occurs  in 
commerce.  A  particular  species  of  moulding  is  thus 
made,  which  resembles,  in  its  section,  that  part  of  the 
frame  of  a  window  which  separates  two  adjacent  panes 
of  glass.  Being  much  stronger  than  wood,  it  can  be 
considerably  reduced  in  thickness,  and  consequently 
offers  less  obstruction  to  the  light ;  it  is  much  used  for 
skylights."* 

It  is  sometimes  required  that  the  iron  thus  produced 
shall  not  be  of  uniform  thickness,  throughout.  This  is 
the  case  in  rolling  some  forms  of  iron  for  rail-roads,  for 
which  purpose,  greater  depth  is  required  towards  the 
middle  of  the  rail,  which  is  at  the  greatest  distance 
from  the   supports.     This  is  accomplished,  by  cutting 

*  See  Babbage,  on  copying. 


PRINTING.  221 

the  groove  in  the  rollers  deeper  at  those  parts  where 
additional  strength  is  required,  so  that  the  hollow,  which 
surrounds  the  roller,  would,  if  it  could  be  unwound,  be 
a  mould  of  the  shape  the  iron  is  intended  to  fit. 

3.  ''  Stamping. — This  mode  of  copying  is  exten- 
sively employed  in  the  arts.  It  is  generally  executed 
by  means  of  large  presses,  with  a  screw  and  heavy  fly- 
wheel, and  moved  by  hand,  by  water,  or  by  steam  pow- 
er. The  materials  on  which  the  copies  are  impressed 
are  most  frequently  metals,  and  the  process  is  some- 
times executed  when  they  are  hot ;  and  in  one  case, 
when  the  metal  is  in  a  state  between  solidity  and  flu- 
idity. It  is  in  this  way  tliat  the  coins  which  circulate 
as  money  are  produced ;  as  also  ornaments  for  military 
accoutrements  and  furniture  ;  buttons  embossed  with 
crests  and  other  devices,  as  well  as  those  of  a  hemi- 
spherical form  ;  nail-heads,  medals,  &c.  In  medals, 
wiiich  usually  have  their  figures  in  higher  relief  than 
coins,  a  single  blow  is  rarely  sufficient  to  bring  them 
to  perfection.  As  this  blow,  however,  renders  them 
too  hard  to  receive  many  subsequent  blows,  without 
injurv  to  the  die,  they  are  removed,  after  being  struck, 
to  a  furnace,  where  they  are  carefully  heated  red  hot, 
and  annealed  ;  after  which,  they  are  again  placed  be- 
tween the  dies,  and  receive  additional  blows.  For 
large  medals,  and  those  on  which  the  figures  are  very 
prominent,  these  processes  must  be  repeated  many 
times, — in  some  instances  nearly  a  hundred." 

•1.  Printing. — The  impressions  in  printing  are  some- 
times taken  from  ink  applied  to  raised  surfaces,  and 
sometimes  from  cavities.  Of  the  former  kind,  is  the 
common  printing  from  movable  types  ;*  also  from  stereo- 
type plates,  and  from  wooden  blocks.  Wooden  blocks 
are  used  to  communicate  the  impressions  which  have 

*  The  prodigious  improvement  which  has  been  made  in  tlie  art  of 
printing,  witliin  the  last  thirty  years,  is  striitingly  illustrated  by  a  fact 
mentioned  in  a  late  number  of  the  English  (Quarterly  Review.  For- 
merly, it  required  nearly  three  mouths  to  print  a  Number  of  that  wt)rk, 
trhich  is  now  printt'd  in  twice  as  many  days. 

19^ 


222  COPYING,  IXCLUDIXG  CASTIXG,  ETC. 

been  carved  upon  them  to  paper ;  and,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  small  pieces  of  copper  wire,  of  various  forms, 
fixed  into  them,  they  also  serve  to  communicate  figures, 
of  various  colors,  to  calico  and  oil  cloth. 

Printing  offices  are  so  common,  throughout  the  coun- 
try, that  a  large  proportion  of  our  readers  must  have 
^en  them  in  operation.  But  as  there  may  be  others, 
r.ho  have  not  seen  them,  and  the  process  is  both  cu- 
rious and  important,  we  subjoin  a  short  description. 
The  first  step  is  to  deposit  the  types  in  the  case, 
which  is  a  sort  of  drawer  divided  into  compartments, 
or  cells,  and  placed  on  a  frame  of  convenient  height. 
There  are  two  cases  on  each  frame,  the  upper  contain- 
ing ninety-eight,  and  the  lower  fifty-four,  cells  ;  those  in 
the  lower,  of  unequal  sizes,  corresponding  to  the  gieat- 
er  or  less  quantity  required  of  each  individual  letter. 
'•  Although  the  ideas  or  words  of  one  author  would 
not,  especially  in  his  own  opinion,  at  all  suit  those  of 
his  brother  writer,  yet  the  letters  which  compose  them 
are  found,  in  practice,  to  bear  to  eacli  other  exactly  the 
same  proportion.""  The  letters  are  not  arranged  in  the 
lower  cases  in  alphabetical  order,  but  those  most  often 
used  are  placed  in  the  most  convenient  position.  •'•  In 
the  English  language,  the  letter  e  inhabits  the  largest 
box  ;  «,  c.  d.  h;  i.  m.  n,  o,  r,  s,  t,  u,  live  in  the  next 
sized  apartments  ;  h.f,  g,  I,  p,  v,  u\  y,  dwell  in  what 
may  be  termed  bedrooms,  while  j,  k,  q,  x,  z,  ce,  a, 
double  letters,  capitals,  dec,  are  more  humbly  lodged 
in  the  cupboards,  garrets,  and  cellars.  The  reason  of 
this  arrangement  is,  that  the  letter  e  being  visited  by 
the  compositor  sixty  times  as  often  as  z.  it  is -evidently 
advisable  that  the  letters  oftenest  required  should  be 
the  nearest  as  well  as  in  the  greatest  quantity.  Short 
types,  or  quadrats,  for  spaces  between  the  words,  and 
those  for  the  punctuation,  are  arranged  upon  the  same 
principle.  Latin  and  French  books  devour  more  of  c, 
t,  /,  m.  p.  q,  s.  i(.  and  v.  tlian  English  ones,  and  for 
these  lansuages  the  cases  must  tlierefore  be  arranged 
Rccordinffjv." 


PRINTING.  223 

"  The  usual  way  of  filling  cases  with  letters  is,  by 
distributing  the  type  pages  of  books,  which  have  been 
printed  ofl".  This  is  done  with  astonishing  celerity.  If 
the  type  were  jumbled,  or,  as  it  is  technically  termed, 
in  }n,  the  time  requisite  for  recognising  the  tiny  coun- 
tenance of  each  letter  would  be  enormous  :  but  the 
compositor,  being  enabled  to  grasp  and  read  one  or  two 
sentences  at  a  time,  without  again  looking  at  the  let- 
ters, drops  tliem,  one  by  one,  here,  there,  and  every 
where,  according  to  their  destination.  It  is  calculated 
that  a  good  compositor  can  distribute  four  thousand 
letters  per  hour,  which  is  about  four  times  as  many  as 
he  can  compose  ;  just  as  in  common  life  all  men  can 
spend  money,  at  least  twenty  times  as  readily  as  they 
ran  earn  it, 

'•'  As  soon  as  tlie  workman  has  filled  his  cases,  his 
next  Sisyphus'  labor  is,  by  composition,  to  exhaust 
tiiem.  Glancing  occasionally  at  his  copy  before  him, 
ho  consecutively  picks  up,  with  a  zigzag  movement,  and 
with  almost  the  velocity  of  lightning,  the  letters  he  re- 
(^uires.  In  arranging  these  types,  in  the  stick,  or  little 
iron  frame  which  he  iiolds  in  his  left  hand,  he  must  of 
course  place  tlicm  with  their  heads  or  letter-ends  up- 
permost ;  besides  which,  they  must,  like  soldiers,  be 
made  to  march  the  same  way."  For  this  purpose,  the 
types  are  all  cast  with  a  nick  on  one  of  their  sides,  cor- 
responding to  the  bottom  of  the  letter,  by  which  simple 
contrivance,  the  dift'erent  parts  of  the  type  are  easily 
recognised.  Tiic  compositor,  therefore,  has  no  occa- 
sion to  look  at  his  types  while  setting  them.  He  se- 
lects the  proper  letter,  by  directing  his  hand  to  its  ap- 
propriate cell,  and  gives  it  its  proper  position  in  the 
stick,  by  feeling  the  diflerent  surfaces.  "  The  compos- 
ing stick  holds  a  certain  measure  of  type,  and  as  soon 
as  it  is  filled,  the  paragraph,  or  fragment  of  paragraph, 
it  contains,  is  transplanted"  to  a  galley,  or  movable 
frame  prepared  for  the  purpose,  whence  it  is  made  up 
into  pages.  "This  process  is  repeated,  until  the  pages 
composing  a  sheet,  being  complf>tod.  are  firmly  fixed 


224  COPYING.   INCLUDIXG   CASTING,.  ETC. 

by  wooden  quoins,  or  wedges,  into  an  iron  frame  call- 
ed a  chase ;  and,  after  having  thus  been  properly  pre- 
pared for  the  proof-press,  a  single  copy  is  pulled  off, 
and  the  business  of  correction  then  begins."**  The 
proof  copy  is  carefully  examined  by  a  reader,  who 
marks  the  errors  in  the  margin,  wiiich  the  compositor 
corrects  by  picking  out  the  wrong  letter  with  a  bodkin, 
and  replacing  it  with  the  right  one.  Another  copy  is 
then  taken  and  revised,  and  sometimes  several  in  suc- 
cession, until  the  whole  is  pronounced  correct. 

The  form,  as  it  is  called,  is  now  ready  for  the  press. 
If  to  be  printed  by  a  hand-press,  it  is  placed  on  a  mov- 
able bed,  so  that  the  pressman,  after  laying  upon  it  a 
sheet  of  moistened  paper,  can.  by  turning  a  crank  with 
his  left  hand,  roll  it  under  the  press,  while,  with  his 
right  hand,  he  pulls  a  lever,  which  brings  down  the 
full  weight  of  the  press  upon  it.  He  then  rolls  it  back, 
and  while  he  is  employed  in  removing  the  sheet  which 
has  received  the  impression,  and  laying  on  another,  the 
types  are  supplied  with  ink.  This  was  formerly  done 
with  a  pair  of  leather  bails,  stufted  with  wool.  It  is 
now  done,  more  perfectly,  with  rollers,  which  pass  over 
the  types,  and  with  the  additional  advantage,  that  the 
rollers  can  be  managed  by  a  boy,  or  even  by  machin- 
ery, whereas,  the  balls  required  a  skilful  workman. 
Great  improvements  have  also  been  made  in  the  press 
itself.  Formerly,  the  pressure  was  made  by  a  powerful 
screw  worked  by  a  lever.  So  much  strength  was  de- 
manded, to  work  it,  that  two  pressmen  were  always  re- 
quired, to  relieve  each  otiier,  by  working  alternately  at 
giving  the  impression  and  v/ith  the  balls.  Now,  a 
double  lever,  united  by  a  toggle  joint,  is  substituted  for 
the  screw.  By  which,  and  other  improvements,  a  sin- 
gle pressman  is  enabled  to  accomplish  more  work  than 
two  could,  formerly,  and  in  a  better  manner,  and  with 
less  fatigue. 

In  large  establishments,  most  of  the  printing,  from 

*  See  the  London  Quarterly  Review,  for  December,  1839,  for  a 
lively  account  of  the  operations  of  a  large  printing  establishment, 
from  which  mnnh  of  the  above  description  is  taken. 


PRINTING.  225 

the  forms,  is  done  on  machine  or  power  presses.  These 
are  worked  either  by  a  crank,  turned  by  a  laborer,  or 
by  liorse,  or  water,  or  steam,  power.  There  is  a  great 
variety  of  these,  but  they  are  generally  so  constructed, 
that  the  whole  work  is  done  by  the  machinery.  A  boy 
or  girl  lays  the  sheet  of  paper  upon  a  slender  frame, 
when  it  is  immediately  drawn  away,  and  a  moment  after 
is  deposited  in  a  pile,  already  printed,  in  the  most  per- 
fect manner.  Most  of  the  machines  used  in  this  coun- 
try print  only  one  side  of  the  paper  at  a  time,  the  pro- 
cess requiring  to  be  repeated  for  the  other  side.  There 
are  some,  however,  and  they  are  more  common  in  Eng- 
land, that  print  both  sides,  at  the  same  operation.  It 
is  stated  that  the  Messrs.  Clowes,  the  printers  of  the 
London  Quarterly  Review,  have  in  operation,  in  one 
establishment,  nineteen  machines,  each  capable  of  print- 
ing a  thousand  sheets  an  hour. 

There  is  perhaps  no  department  of  the  arts,  in  which 
improvements  have  been  made  more  rapidly,  than  in 
printing.  In  speaking  of  paper-making  by  machinery, 
it  was  said,  that  the  paper  is  drawn  out  in  a  contin- 
uous sheet,  being  subsequently  divided,  for  use.  We 
have  seen  it  stated,  recently,  that  a  machine  has  been 
contrived  and  put  in  operation,  by  which  the  contin- 
uous undivided  sheet  of  paper,  passes  directly  into  a 
printing  machine,  in  which  all  the  forms  of  a  book  of 
considerable  size  are  placed  around  a  cylinder,  and 
there  receives  a  full  impression  at  one  operation.  Thus 
the  unsightly  rags,  deposited  in  one  hour  in  a  paper- 
maker's  vat,  in  another,  come  out,  not  merely  a  paper 
of  beautiful  texture  and  complexion,  but  a  full-sized 
printed  book,  ready  for  the  binder's  hands. 

Examples  of  printing  from  cavities  may  be  seen  in 
the  case  of  copper  plates,  into  which  the  characters 
have  been  cut  by  a  graver ;  in  engravings  on  steel, 
whicii  are  much  more  valuable  than  those  on  copper, 
since  the  plate  will  give  oft' many  thousand  impressions, 
without  sensible  deterioration,  whereas  the  copper  soon 
becomes  imperfect :  in  music-printing,  which  is  usual- 


226  COPYING,   INCLUDING   CASTING,  ETC. 

ly  printed  from  pewter  plates,  on  which  the  characters 
have  been  impressed  by  steel  punches  :  and  in  calico- 
printi7ig.  from  cylinders  of  copper,  four  or  live  inches 
in  diameter,  on  which  the  desired  pattern  has  been  pre- 
viously engi-aved.  One  portion  of  the  cylinder  is  ex- 
posed to  the  ink.  wiiilst  an  elastic  scraper,  of  stuffed 
leather,  by  being  pressed  forcibly  against  another  part, 
removes  all  superfluous  ink  from  the  surface,  previously 
to  its  reaching  the  cloth.  A  piece  of  calico,  twenty- 
eight  yards  in  length,  rolls  through  this  press,  and  is 
printed  in  four  or  five  minutes. 

One  of  the  most  ingenious  and  important  applica- 
tions of  printing  is  in  the  production  of  colored  maps. 
Instead  of  being  tirst  engraved  on  copper  or  steel,  at  a 
great  expense,  maps  may  now  be  printed  from  metal 
types,  fixed  in  wooden  blocks,  to  designate  the  position 
and  names  of  places,  the  courses  of  rivers,  &.c. ;  and  the 
map  is  both  printed  and  colored  by  machinery,  and  at 
one  operation.  A  large  sheet  of  white  drawing  paper 
is  placed  at  the  bottom  of  what  seems,  at  first,  to  be  an 
open  box, — the  sides  of  this  box  being  covered  with  met- 
al plates,  and  so  adjusted,  that  they  successively  shut  and 
open,  like  a  lid.  One  of  them  is  colored  blue,  another 
yellow,  a  third  red,  and  a  fourth  black.  The  black 
plate  impresses  on  the  paper  the  marks  and  names  of 
cities,  &c.,  with  the  necessary  lines,  while  the  remain- 
der serve  to  impart  difterent  colors  to  the  various  king- 
doms, principalities,  &.c.  These  plates  are  applied,  in 
quick  succession,  to  the  paper,  by  means  of  machinery. 

Analogous  to  printing  is  the  process  called  emboss- 
i7ig.  The  pattern  being  engraved  on  rollers,  the  sub- 
stance to  be  embossed  is  passed  through  them  ;  and, 
being  subjected  to  very  great  pressure,  is  forced  into 
the  cavities,  while  the  parts  not  opposite  to  any  cavity 
are  powerfully  condensed  between  the  rollers.  In  this 
way,  a  raised  pattern  is  produced  on  the  surface  of 
leather,  calico,  &c.  We  will  conclude  these  brief  re- 
marks, by  an  account  of  a  recent  invention  of  Mr.  Per 
kins,  which  enables  us  to  multiply  copies  of  an  engrav- 


PRINTING.  227 

mg,  very  easily  and  cheaply,  and,  to  all  practical  pur- 
poses, without  any  limit.  "  A  cylinder  of  soft  steel, 
pressed  with  great  force  against  the  hardened  steel 
engraving,  is  now  made  to  roll  slowly  backward  and 
forward  over  it,  thus  receiving  the  design,  but  in  relief. 
This  is,  in  its  turn,  hardened,  without  injury  ;  and,  if  it 
be  slowly  rolled  to  and  fro,  with  strong  pressure,  on 
successive  plates  of  copper,  it  will  imprint  on  a  thous- 
and of  them  a  perfect  facsimile  of  the  original  steel 
engraving,  from  which  it  resulted.  Thus  the  number 
of  copies,  producible  from  the  same  design,  is  multi- 
plied a  thousandfold.  But  even  this  is  very  far  short 
of  the  limits  to  which  this  process  may  be  extended. 
The  hardened  steel  roller,  bearing  the  design  upon  it, 
in  relief,  may  be  employed  to  make  a  few  of  its  first 
impressions  upon  plates  of  soft  steel,  and  these,  being 
hardened,  become  the  representatives  of  the  original 
engraving,  and  may,  in  their  turn,  be  made  the  parents 
of  other  rollers,  each  generating  copper  plates  like  their 
prototypes.  The  possible  extent  to  which  facsimiles 
of  one  original  engraving  may  thus  be  multiplied,  al- 
most confounds  the  imagination,  and  appears  to  be,  for 
all  practical  purposes,  unlimited."* 

The  influence  which  has  been  exerted,  by  this  art 
of  copying,  on  the  welfare  of  the  human  race,  is  wholly 
incalculable.  To  say  nothing  of  the  benefits  bestowed 
by  the  other  methods  of  copying,  printing  alone,  by  the 
stimulus  which  it  has  given  to  the  mind,  has  created 
mucli  of  the  science  and  art  which  we  possess,  and  has 
conferred  upon  the  multitude,  in  every  country,  almost  all 
the  light  and  civilization  that  they  now  enjoy.  Previous 
to  the  invention  of  printing,  and  of  the  arts  of  manu- 
facturing paper,  (for  without  the  latter  the  former  would 
have  been  of  little  value,)  books  could  be  multiplied 
only  by  the  slow  and  expensive  process  of  transcribing. 
This  Volume,  of  which  several  thousand  copies  can  be 
printed  in  a  few  hours,  in  a  large  printing-office,  could 
not  be  transcribed  once,  by  a  single  hand,  short  of  many 

*  Babbaffo 


228  COPYING,   INCLUDING   CASTING,  ETC. 

weeks,  and  at  an  expense  of  from  twenty  to  fifty  dol- 
lars.* For  this  work,  tlie  cost  of  which  does  not  now 
exceed  a  dollar,  an  individual  would  have  had  to  pay, 
previous  to  the  invention  of  printing,  at  least  twenty 
times  the  same  sum,  and  would  have  had,  after  all,  an 
article  vastly  inferior,  both  in  convenience  and  beauty. 
It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say,  that  a  library  of  one  thous- 
and volumes  can  now  be  purchased  for  less  money  than 
would  have  been  required,  previous  to  the  invention  of 
the  art  of  printing,  for  the  purchase  of  fifty. 

Copying  by  Transfer. — Another  method  of  copy- 
ing, is,  by  a  direct  transfer  of  the  lines  to  be  copied, 
whether  a  printed  or  written  page,  or  an  engraved  pic- 
ture, to  the  surface  of  a  lithographic  stone,  from  which 
copies  are  printed  to  an  indefinite  extent.  Attempts 
of  this  kind  had  been  made,  for  a  long  time ;  but  not 
proving  successful,  they  were  abandoned  as  impracti- 
cable, until,  within  a  few  years,  one  of  our  own  coun- 
trymen succeeded  in  the  experiment.  A  method  of 
copying,  by  this  process,  was  announced,  in  Paris,  in 
1839,  as  a  new  discovery,  by  Messrs.  Duponts,  (two 
brothers,  one  a  printer,  the  other  a  lithographer ;) 
but  we  are  assured,  on  undoubted  authority,!  that  the 
same  art  v^^as  discovered  and  practised  in  this  country 
as  early  as  183:2,  by  Mr.  Joseph  Dixon,  formerly  of 
Salem,  now  of  Taunton,  Massachusetts.  The  minute 
details  of  the  process  are  not  revealed  by  either  of  the 
discoverers.  It  should  seem,  however,  that  substan- 
tially the  same  method  is  pursued  by~-both,  although 
we  are  not  aware  that  there  is  any  reason  to  suppose 
that  either  is  borrowed  from  the  other.  By  the  dates 
which  are  given  above,  it  will  be  seen,  that  the  priority 
of  discovery  rests  entirely  with  our  countryman. 

*  The  copyists  of  ancient  daj's  sometimes  spent  fifty  j'ears  in  tran- 
scribing and  illuminating  o?ie  copy  of  the  Bible.     Five  hundred  dol 
lars  was   paid  for  a  single  MS.   concordance,  and  about  the  same 
price,  per  volume,  was  paid,  in  one  instance,  for  a  copy  of  the  works 
of  Livy. 

t  Papers  of  that  date,  and  specimens  of  the  work  done  at  the 
time. 


COPYING  BY  TRANSFER  229 

Mr.  Dixon's  method  of  transfer  is  applicable  to  any 
printing,  wiicther  old  or  recent.  He  first  spreads  a 
liquid,  the  composition  of  which  lie  keeps  secret,  over 
the  page  or  print  to  be  copied.  This  page  is  then  laid 
on  a  lithographic  stone,  to  which,  on  being  pressed, 
it  immediately  conveys  a  reversed  facsimile  of  itself. 
From  this  stone,  copies  are  multiplied,  at  pleasure,  in 
the  usual  manner  of  lithographic  printing.  Tiic  essen- 
tial peculiarity  of  the  process  seems  to  consist  in  the 
properties  of  the  fluid  applied  to  the  surface  of  the 
j^rint,  by  which  the  original  ink,  however  dried  and 
hardened  by  age,  is  made  to  act  on  the  stone  with  an 
influence  precisely  similar  to  that  produced  by  the 
common  lithographic  drawing.  It  is  exceedingly  cu- 
rious, and  adds  greatly  to  the  value  of  the  discovery, 
that  all  this  is  done  without  the  slightest  tarnish  to  the 
original  print,  or  the  least  diminution,  in  any  way,  of  its 
clearness  or  depth  of  color.  The  whole  is  done  with 
such  facility,  that  a  page  has  been  taken  from  a  volume, 
transferred  to  stone,  several  copies  printed  from  it,  and 
the  leaf  restored  to  its  place,  in  its  original  state,  in 
sixteen  minutes.  Mr.  D.  exhibited  specimens  of  his  art 
at  the  Mechanics'  Fair,  held  in  Boston,  in  Sept.  1841. 

It  would  be  interesting,  if  our  limits  would  permit, 
to  give  a  history  of  tlie  steps  of  Mr.  Dixon's  discovery  ; 
as  it  would  furnish  another  example  of  the  iiappy  in- 
fluence of  science  in  conducting  an  ingenious  inquirer 
to  a  successfid  issue.  The  discovery  was  not  acciden- 
tal, but  was  the  result  of  patient  and  long-continued 
research.  Being  a  printer,  and  consequently  familiar 
with  the  properties  of  the  ink  used  in  that  art,  and  be- 
ing also  well  versed  in  chemical  science,  it  occurred  to 
him,  to  seek  for  some  substance  that  shovdd  exert  such 
an  influence  upon  the  ink,  as  to  enable  him  to  obtain  a 
copy.  It  was  not  until  after  many  discouragements, 
and  a  long  course  of  unsuccessful  attempts,  that  he  at 
length  succeeded.  In  the  mean  time,  liis  health  be- 
came mucli  impaired,  and  his  j)ecuniary  means  exhaust- 
ed, so  that  he  has  not  been  able  to  introduce  his  dis- 
20  s.  A. 


230  LOCOMOTION'. 

covery  so  successfHlly  to  the  public,  as,  under  other 
circumstances,  he  might  have  done  ;  nor  to  derive  the 
benefit  from  it,  to  which  its  importance  and  value  enti- 
tle him. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


LOCOMOTIO.V. 


The  progress  of  society  in  any  country  will  be  ma- 
terially influenced  by  the  means  of  intercourse  and 
transportation  which  it  enjoys.  Where  roads  and  ve- 
hicles are  bad.  and  the  intercourse  in  everv  respect 
limited,  men  are  deprived  of  important  incentives  to 
exertion.  The  husbandman  has  little  inducement  to 
cultivate  new  land,  or  to  improve  his  method  of  tillage, 
because  the  expense  of  transporting  his  produce  to  mar- 
ket will  consume  his  profits.  The  mechanic  and  man- 
ufacturer, for  the  same  reasons,  have  no  motive  for 
enlarging  their  operations,  and  hence,  the  community 
are  but  partially  supplied  with  articles  of  convenience 
and  luxury.  Cheap  and  rapid  transportation,  by  lessen- 
ing the  cost  of  commodities,  and  enabling  us  to  carry 
to  market  those  of  a  perishable  nature,  increases  the 
number  of  consumers,  and  thus  multiplies  the  enjoy- 
ments, while  it  stimulates  the  industry  and  enterprise, 
of  men.  It  will  generally  be  found,  that  nations  im- 
prove, more  or  less  rapidly,  in  proportion  to  the  facili- 
ties which  they  enjoy  for  foreign  and  inland  commerce. 
The  remarks  which  we  have  to  ofier,  on  this  subject, 
will  naturally  arrange  themselves  under  the  heads  of  I. 
The  moving  power  employed  in  transportation ;  II. 
The  vehicles ;  III.  The  7'oads.  "We  shall  endeavor  to 
point  out  the  respective  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  the  difierent  kinds  of  locomotion,  and  thus  enable 
the  reader  to  judge  of  their  relative  economy,  conve- 
nience. &,c. 

I.  We  are  to  speak  of  the  momng  power  employed 


MOVING   POWER  USED   IN  TRANSPORTATION.  231 

ill  transportation.  The  first,  and  generally  the  only, 
])Ower,  employed  in  a  rude  state  of  society,  is  that  of  a 
man  cariyiiii,^  a  load.  We  have  already,  in  a  former 
Chapter,  said  something  of  its  disadvantages.  It  is,  of 
all  modes  of  transport,  the  most  slow,  expensive,  and 
inconvenient.  A  man  on  foot  could  carry  but  about 
twenty-eight  pounds  from  Albany  to  New  York  in  nine 
(lays.  A  stagecoacli  can  carry  two  or  more  tons,  over 
the  same  road,  in  two  days ;  and  a  steam-boat  a  much 
greater  quantity  in  less  than  twelve  hours ;  so  that,  for 
all  purposes  of  trade  and  intercourse,  Albany  is  brought, 
by  stagecoach,  within  a  few  miles  of  New  York,  com- 
pared with  tlie  rate  on  fool.  Indeed,  a  package  is  now 
carried  from  New  York  to  Albany  as  cheaply  as  it  can 
be  transported,  on  the  btitk  of  a  porter,  from  one  part 
of  Albany  to  another.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  there- 
fore, of  the  great  advanttiges  which  horse-power  has 
over  human  force.  Nor  is  there  more  doubt  of  the  su- 
])eriority  of  wind  and  steam  power  over  that  of  the 
liorse.  Where  animals  are  used,  they  must,  besides 
the  load  which  they  carry,  move  the  weight  of  their  own 
body,  and  a  great  portion  of  their  strength  is  thus  cm- 
ployed.  This  portion,  too,  is  found  to  increase,  at  a 
rapid  rate,  w  ith  the  velocity ;  so  that,  beyond  a  moder- 
ate limit,  advantage  is  lost,  with  every  increase  of  speed  ; 
ami  at  certain  rates,  which  are  by  no  means  high,  all 
useful  efibcts  disappear, — the  whole  power  of  the  animal 
being  expended  in  transporting  himself.  In  the  steam- 
engine,  on  the  contrary,  speed  does  not  dimimsh  the 
efficienc}!  of  tlie  moving  power.  A  given  quantity  of 
steam,  whether  produced  and  expended  slowly  or  quick- 
ly, will  cost  the  same  sum,  and  will  perform  nearly  the 
same  work.  Whence  it  appears,  that,  with  no  greater 
expense  than  would  be  requisite,  if  we  used  horses,  to 
secure  a  very  moderate  degree  of  speed,  we  can,  by 
using  steam,  attain  a  rapidity  greater  than  is  ever  at- 
tained by  horses  in  draught.  It  is  also  worthy  of  re- 
mark, that,  in  a  populous  country,  where  the  means  of 
subsistence  are  dear,  an  immense  quantity  of  food  is 


'232  LOCOMOTION'. 

consumed  by  horses.  It  is  computed,  that  there  are 
about  a  milhon  of  horses  employed  in  Great  Britain,  in 
the  transport  of  passengers  and  aroods  ;  and  that,  to 
support  each  horse  requires  as  much  land,  as  would,  on 
an  average,  support  eight  men. 

Now,  if  this  quantity  of  animal  power  were  displaced 
by  steam-engines,  and  the  means  of  transport  were 
drawn  from  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  instead  of  being 
raised  upon  its  surface,  then,  supposing  the  above  cal- 
culations correct,  land  suthcient  for  the  support  of  an 
additional  population  of  eight  milhons  would  become 
at  once  available  for  that  purpose ;  or,  what  amounts 
to  the  same  thing,  the  means  of  support,  for  the  pres- 
ent population,  would  be  increased  about  one  third. 
It  ought  not  to  be  forgotten,  however,  that  there  are 
certain  situations,  as  we  shall  see  hereafter,  in  which 
steam-power  cannot  be  introduced,  and  where  the  pow- 
er of  the  horse,  therefore,  must  still  be  employed. — We 
proceed  now  to  consider, 

II.  J'ehicles  used  in  Transportation. — The  earliest 
and  simplest  mode  of  conveying  goods  and  passen- 
gers, as  we  have  remarked,  is  to  convey  them  by  main 
strength.  This  mode  is  still  practised,  in  some  parts 
of  the  East ;  but  it  has  been  succeeded,  in  more  civil- 
ized countries,  by  vehicles  moving  on  land  or  water. 
An  animal,  which  cannot  carrv  more  than  three  hun- 
dred pounds,  will  draw  eight  times  that  amount  in  a 
cart,  over  a  good  road,  and  fifty  times  that  amount,  if 
placed  in  a  boat  on  a  canal.  The  most  important  ob- 
ject, to  be  attended  to  in  the  construction  of  these  ve- 
hicles, is,  to  diminish  resistance.  On  land,  this  resist- 
ance arises  from  friction  between  the  moving  body  and 
the  surface  of  tiie  road.  On  water,  it  arises  from  the 
mass  of  fluid  lying  immediately  before  the  boat,  which 
must  be  pushed  out  of  the  way  as  the  boat  advances. 
Wheel  Carriages. — 1 .  Various  expedients  have  been 
recommended,  for  lessening  the  friction  of  solids  mov- 
ing over  each  other.  The  effect  of  these  expedients 
may  be  inferred,  from  the  following  experiment,  which 


WHEEL  CARRIAGES.  235 

has  been  made  upon  a  block  of  squared  stone,  weigh- 
ing  one    thousand  and    eighty  pounds. 

a  In  order  to  drag  this  stone  along  the  floor  of  the 
quarry,  roughly  chiseled,  it  required  a  force  equal  to 
seven  hundred  and  fifty-eight  pounds  ; 

b.  In  order  to  put  it  in  motion,  when  it  was  placed 
on  rollers  of  three  inches  in  diameter,  it  required  but 
thirty-four ; 

c.  To  draw  it  on  these  rollers,  over  a  wooden  floor, 
it  required  twenty-eight. 

When  the  stone  was  mounted  on  a  wooden  plat- 
form, and  the  same  rollers  placed  between  that  and  a 
plank  floor,  it  required  t^^■enty-two  pounds  ;  from  which 
it  appears,  that,  in  the  first  instance,  the  force  necessa- 
ry to  move  the  stone  was  nearly  two  thirds  of  its  whole 
weight ;  whereas,  in  the  last  case,  it  was  only  one  fif- 
tieth,— making  the  same  force  thirty-five  times  more 
effective,  in  one  case,  than  it  was  in  the  other,  to  say 
nothing  now  of  the  eft'ect  of  smooth  surfaces.  Hence 
we  see  the  great  advantage  which  is  obtained,  by  sub- 
stituting a  rolling  motion  for  a  sliding  one.  This 
advantage  is  greatest  where  the  rollers  are  separated 
from  the  heavy  body  to  be  moved,  and  are  not  con- 
strained, as  in  the  common  wagon  or  carriage,  to 
move  round  a  fixed  axis:  as  when  rollers  are  placed 
under  a  house  to  be  moved.  In  the  wheels  used  for 
carriages,  the  conversion  of  sliding  into  rolling  is  less 
complete,  but  is  still  of  great  advantage.  The  friction, 
in  that  case,  is  transferred  from  the  surface  of  the  road 
to  the  centre  of  the  wheel,  or  rather  to  the  place  of 
contact  between  the  axlctrce  and  the  box  of  the  wheel, 
and  is  of  course  diminished,  in  the  proportion  of  the 
diameter  of  the  axletree  to  the  diameter  of  the  wheel. 
The  rolling  surfaces,  also,  being  kept  polished,  and 
besmeared  with  some  unctuous  substance,  arc  in  the 
best  ])Ossible  condition  to  diminish  friction.  Moreover, 
when  tiie  wheel  strikes  against  any  abrupt  obstacle  in 
the  road,  such  as  a  stone,  it  is  converted  into  a  lever, 
for  lifting  the  load  over  the  resisting  object.  I(  an 
20* 


•234  LOCOMOTION. 

obstacle,  eight  or  ten  inches  in  height,  were  presented 
to  the  body  of  a  carriage  not  supphed  with  wheels, 
it  would  stop  its  progress,  or  subject  it  to  such  violence, 
as  would  endanger  its  safety.  But  in  the  action  of  the 
wheel,  the  load  is  lifted,  and  its  centre  of  gravity  pas- 
ses over,  in  the  direction  of  an  easy  arc.  (the  obstacle, 
representing  the  height  of  an  inclined  plane,  alone: 
which  this  centre  of  gravity  moves.)  In  short,  the  dif- 
ference in  performing  the  same  journey  of  a  mile,  by  a 
sledge  and  a  wheel  carriage,  is,  that  while  the  former 
rubs  over  every  roughness  in  the  road,  and  is  jolted  by 
every  irregularity,  the  rubbing  part  of  the  latter,  the 
axle,  glides  very  slowly  over  a  smooth  oiled  surface  in 
a  gently  waving  line.  It  is  stated,  by  Dr.  Arnott.  that 
the  resistance  is  thus  reduced  to  the  one  hundredth  part 
of  wjiat  it  is  in  the  sledge. 

•2.  It  must  be  obvious,  from  what  we  have  said  of 
the  advantage  gained  by  wheels,  that  those  of  a  large 
size  are  in  every  respect  preferable  to  small  ones. 
They  occasion  less  friction,  and  surmount  obstacles 
more  easily  :  do  not  sink  so  far  into  holes  and  other 
depressions  ;  and  their  less  frequent  revolutions  cause 
less  wear  to  the  wheels  and  less  strain  to  the  spokes. 

It  must  be  remarked,  however,  that,  in  carriages 
drawn  by  animals,  the  diameter  of  the  wheels  must  be 
limited  by  tiie  direction  of  the  draught.  The  draught 
is  exerted  most  directly,  and  of  course  most  powerfully, 
when  its  line  is  nearly  horizontal.  Hence,  the  axle 
should  never  be  higher  than  the  horse's  breast ;  and  in 
practice,  it  is  generally  found  expedient  to  have  the 
point  of  draught  a  little  lower.  The  reasons  for  this 
are.  that,  when  a  horse  draws,  since  he  does  it  princi- 
pally by  his  weight,  he  naturally  leans  forward,  to  de- 
press his  breast ;  and  he  also  exerts  a  greater  force,  in 
proportion  as  the  line  of  draught  passes  near  the  ful- 
crum, which  is  in  his  hind  feet.  Moreover,  when  he 
draws  obliquely  upward,  a  part  of  his  force  is  employed 
in  lessening  the  pressure  of  the  load  on  the  ground,  and 
in  diminishinii  the  drauErht. 


VESSELS.  235 

3.  The  reader  has  probably  observed,  that  wheels  are 
generally  dished,  to  use  the  term  of  mechanics, — that 
is,  are  made  with  spokes  inclined  inwards.  The  prin- 
cipal advantage  of  this  form  is,  that  when  the  carriage 
inclines,  the  lower  spoke  becomes  vertical,  and  thus 
has  the  greatest  strength  at  the  moment  when  the 
strain  is  greatest. 

4.  The  fore  wheels  are  made  smaller  than  the  hind 
ones,  simply  for  the  convenience  of  turning.  In  every 
other  respect,  the  plan  is  disadvantageous,  and  is  there- 
fore abandoned  on  rail-roads.  The  notion,  that  tlie 
higher  wheels,  behind,  help  to  push  forward  the  lower 
ones,  before,  is  without  any  foundation. 

5.  There  lias  been  much  controversy,  respecting  the 
comparative  utility  of  wheels  having  a  broad  or  a  nar- 
row circumference.  In  opposition  to  broad  wheels  it 
has  been  justly  alleged,  that  they  are  heavier  than  nar- 
row ones,  more  expensive,  and  necessarily  include  in 
their  path  a  greater  number  of  obstacles.  These  disad- 
vantages seem  to  be  more  than  counterbalanced,  how- 
ever, in  ordinary  roads,  by  the  ease  with  which  they 
pass  over  rut  holes ;  the  less  depth  to  which  they  sink 
in  a  soft  road  :  and,  above  all.  by  their  use  in  preserving 
and  improving  the  road. 

6.  The  only  other  point,  to  which  we  shall  attend,  is, 
the  use  of  springs.  These  were  originally  introduced 
merely  for  the  comfort  of  the  passenger,  or  to  prevent 
the  violent  jolting  of  the  load.  It  has  been  since  found, 
that  tli^y  are  of  no  inconsiderable  use,  in  diminishing 
the  labor  of  draught.  They  lessen  the  shock  whicli 
the  animal  experiences  when  the  wheel  suddenly  strikes 
an  obstacle  ;  allow  the  wlieel  to  rise,  without  lifting  the 
whole  load  ;  and  carry  forward  this  load,  by  its  own 
inertia,  in  a  soft  and  steady  advance. 

Vessels. — Owing  to  the  facility  with  which  particles 
of  a  liquid  move  among  themselves,  the  water,  which 
heaps  up  before  a  vessel  moving  through  it,  will  easily 
be  disi)laccd  :  hence  it  is  found,  that,  with  moderate 
velocity,  bodies  can  be  moved  throuerh  water  with  much 


236  LOCOMOTIOX. 

less  force,  than  is  requisite  to  move  the  same  bodies  on 
land.  The  resistance  may  be  diminished,  by  giving  a 
proper  form  to  the  vessel,  as  will  appear  from  the  fol- 
lowing considerations.  Suppose  an  oblong  square  box: 
as  Fig.  41.  A  B  C  D,  to  move  through  the  water  in  the 
i-ij.41.  direction  of  its  length, 

^  g  the  pressure  will  be  in- 

.,.-'- — I  ".^  creased  before  and  di- 

F"=---::.',"'  ^>'E    minished    behind,    the 

■"-- .-'  water  being  heaped  up 

D  C  just  before  the  box,  and 

depressed  behind  it,  this  eflect  increasing  rapidly,  as 
the  velocity  becomes  greater.  It  is  obvious,  therefore, 
that  the  vessel  will  be  resisted  and  retarded,  by  what 
is  equivalent  to  two  forces,  namely,  the  increased  pres- 
sure before,  and  the  diminished  pressure  behind  ;  and 
if  we  suppose  these  two  to  be  equal,  the  resistance  will 
evidently  be  just  double  what  would  be  occasioned  by 
the  elevation  of  the  water  at  the  anterior  extremity. 
Now,  this  want  of  pressure  behind  may  be  obviated, 
by  attaching  to  the  hinder  part  of  the  box  a  tapering,  or 
wedged-shaped,  stem,  A  F  D,  which  resembles,  as  near- 
ly as  possible,  the  cavity  left  in  the  water  by  the  ad- 
vancing body.  This  should  be  longer  or  shorter,  in 
proportion  as  the  velocity  of  the  proposed  vessel  is  in- 
tended to  be  great  or  small. 

With  respect  to  the  resistance  before  the  moving 
body,  it  is  to  be  remarked,  that  the  most  of  the  accu- 
mulated water  divides  and  passes  off  by  the  sides ;  an 
operation  which  will  be  assisted  very  much,  if  the  shape 
of  the  bow  be  also  like  a  wedge.  Another  reason  why  it 
should  take  this  shape  is,  that,  besides  the  water  which 
passes  off  laterally,  there  is,  when  the  moving  body  is 
square  at  the  bow,  a  certain  quantity  of  what  is  called 
dead  tcater.  pushed  along  in  advance  of  it,  nearly  in 
the  same  manner  as  if  it  were  a  part  of  the  body  itself. 
It  is  evidently  advantageous  to  occupy  the  place  of 
this  dead  loater  with  a  bow,  B  E  C,  shaped,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  like  it,  and  which  must  be  lengthened,  of 


ROADS.  237 

course,  in  pioportiou  to  the  velocity  which  we  wish  to 
gain.  These  observations  will  be  sufficient  to  show  the 
importance  of  constructing  vessels  very  long,  in  propor- 
tion to  their  breadth  ;  especially  if  they  are  required  to 
be  fust  sailers.  With  these  remarks  respecting  vehicles, 
we  proceed  to  consider,  in  the  third  place, 

III.  JRoads. — Comprehending,  under  this  head,  all 
routes  which  are  used  for  the  conveyance  of  goods 
and  passengers,  whether  by  land  or  by  water,  we  pro- 
pose to  consider  the  relative  advantages  of  land  and 
water  conveyance,  and  afterwards  to  compare  some 
of  the  land-roads  most  highly  approved  at  the  present 
day. 

1.  In  the  case  of  small  velocities,  water-conveyance 
has  great  advantages  over  that  of  land.  .  It  has  been 
ascertained,  by  experiments,  that  a  horse,  moving  at  the 
rate  of  three  miles  an  hour,  will  dra\y,  on  a  canal,  eight 
times  as  much  as  he  can  draw,  at  the  same  rate,  on  the 
smoothest  rail-road  ;  and  since  the  resistance  on  a  ca- 
nal, owing  to  its  being  narrow  and  shallow,  is  greater 
than  in  the  open  sea,  it  follows,  that  in  large  rivers  and 
on  the  ocean  the  relative  gain  of  power  is  still  greater. 
As  we  have  intimated,  however,  tiie  superiority  of  wa- 
ter-conveyance exists  only  in  the  case  of  small  velocities. 
A  vessel,  moving  through  water  at  the  rate  of  three  miles 
an  hour,  has  to  displace  a  certain  quantity  of  water.  If 
it  moved  at  twice  that  velocity,  or  six  miles  an  hour,  it 
would  have  to  displace  twice  as  much  water,  and  of 
course  would  require  twice  as  much  force  to  move  it. 
But,  in  addition  to  this,  owing  to  the  increased  speed 
of  the  boat,  it  must  displace  the  water  much  more  rap- 
idly, and  therefore  must  strike  it  with  much  greater 
force.  In  the  gase  mentioned  above,  the  force,  on  this 
account  alone,  would  have  to  be  doubled ;  and  there 
fore,  owing  to  both  causes,  namely,  the  greater  quantity 
to  be  moved,  and  the  greater  force  requisite  to  move  it 
fast  enough,  the  moving  })ower  must  be  quadrupled, 
in  order  to  have  the  velocity  doubled  :  and,  for  the 
same  reason,  it  must  be  increased  nine  times,  in  order 


238  LOCOMOTION. 

to  have  the  velocity  increased  three  times.  Generally, 
the  resistance  to  a  body  moving  in  water,  and  of  course 
the  power  necessary  to  move  it,  increases,  as  the  square 
of  the  velocity.  It  follows,  therefore,  that,  in  the  case 
of  bodies  moving  at  the  rate  of  nine  miles  an  hour,  the 
rail-road  has  some  advantages  over  any  conveyance  by 
water  ;  and  with  higher  velocities,  it  has  a  still  greater 
advantage,  which  increases  very  fast,  in  proportion  to 
the  velocity.  Its  advantages  over  a  canal  are  still 
greater,  in  such  case,  for  two  reasons :  first  the  resist- 
ance increases  faster  in  proportion  to  the  velocity,  in  a 
canal,  than  it  does  in  a  broad  river,  or  in  the  open  sea, 
owing  to  the  obstructions  which  the  bottom  presents  to 
the  displacing  of  the  water ;  and  secondly,  on  a  canal, 
a  velocity  greater  than  four  or  five  miles  occasions  such 
injury  to  the  banks,  by  the  agitation  of  the  water,  that 
it  is  inadmissible. 

Hence  we  infer,  that,  in  the  case  of  velocities  greater 
than  six  or  eight  miles,  the  rail-road  is  cheaper  than 
the  canal :  whereas,  with  velocities  of  from  two  to  four 
miles,  the  canal  must  always  be  the  cheaper.  In  esti- 
mating the  relative  expense  of  difl^erent  kinds  of  con- 
veyance, however,  account  must  be  taken  of  the  orig- 
inal cost  of  construction,  and  also  of  the  capabilities  of 
the  route  for  employing  the  various  mo.ving  powers. 
Thus,  the  original  expense  of  a  canal  is  materially  great- 
er than  that  of  a  rail-road :  and,  at  the  same  time,  no 
power,  but  that  of  horses,  has  yet  been  employed  in 
moving  boats  upon  it.  Rivers  have  an  advantage  over 
either,  inasmuch  as  they  originally  cost  nothing,  and 
admit  the  use,  not  only  of  steam-power,  but  also  of 
winds  and  currents.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  it 
should  be  considered,  that,  in  our  climate,  the  naviga- 
tion of  both  rivers  and  canals  must  be  suspended,  for 
several  weeks  or  months  during  the  Winter  season. 

2.  In  considering  the  different  kinds  of  land-convey- 
ance, and  their  relative  advantages,  we  have  only  room 
to  notice  the  two  most  prominent  roads  now  in  use,  and 
which  are,  at  present,  the  subject  of  frequent  compar- 


ROADS.  239 

ison,  namely,  McAdam  and  other  stone  roads,  and 
Hail-roads.  After  a  variety  of  experiments,  it  seems 
pretty  well  ascertained,  that  the  power  necessary  to 
draw  or  impel  a  load,  on  a  horizontal  McAdam  road, 
is  at  least  eight  times  as  great,  as  would  be  required  to 
move  tlic  same  load,  on  a  level  rail-road.  It  is  obvious, 
therefore,  that  when  a  rail-road  is  level,  it  must  have 
important  advantages  over  the  best  road  which  can  be 
formed  of  stone.  The  force  of  traction  or  impulsion, 
in  such  case,  is  but  about  the  two  hundred  and  for- 
tieth part  of  the  load  drawn.  When  the  level  changes, 
however,  the  force  of  traction  requisite  increases,  very 
rapidly.  For  example,  if  the  road  rises  one  foot  in  two 
hundred  and  forty,  the  tendency,  from  gravity,  of  the 
load  to  descend,  would  just  equal  the  force  previously 
necessary  to  draw  or  impel  it  on  a  level ;  so  that  the 
force  of  traction  would  have  to  be  doubled.  To  carry 
it  up  a  plane,  rising  one  foot  in  a  hundred  and  twenty, 
the  moving  power  must  be  trebled ;  and  quadrupled, 
to  carry  it  up  a  plane,  rising  one  foot  in  eighty. 

From  this,  it  is  obvious,  that  the  agent  employed  as 
a  propelling  power,  on  a  rail-road  having  inclinations 
on  it,  must*  be  susceptible  of  varying  its  energies  within 
very  wide  limits :  and  this  is  one  of  the  greatest  prac- 
tical difficulties  with  which  the  rail-road  system  has  to 
contend.  On  a  stone  road,  the  increase  in  the  power 
required  by  an  ascent  is  absolutely  just  as  great,  as 
would  be  required  by  the  same  ascent  on  a  rail-road  ; 
but  not  relatively  so  great:  for  on  a  stone  road,  the 
power  requisite,  even  on  a  level,  is  so  considerable,  that 
the  increase  caused  by  an  elevation  is  no  material  ad- 
dition ;  whereas,  on  a  level  rail-road,  the  power  of  trac- 
tion is  so  inconsiderable,  that  the  increase  produced  by 
the  smallest  inclination  is  severely  felt. 

This  great  variation,  which  is  required  in  the  propel- 
ling power  used  in  rail-roads  not  level,  has  suggested 
the  employment  of  stationary  engines,  at  the  principal 
points  of  elevation.  As  this,  however,  is  expensive  and 
inconvenient,  another  expedient  proposed  is,  to  main* 


240  LOCOMOXIO-V. 

tain  a  perfect  level  in  the  construction  of  the  road. 
To  effect  this  object  requires,  in  most  cases,  a  very 
large  expenditure  of  capital.  The  great  expense  of 
construction,  under  any  circumstances,  renders  it  nec- 
essary that  the  line,  connecting  the  principal  points  of 
intercourse,  should  be  as  short  as  possible.  Hence 
arises  the  necessity  of  deviating  very  little  from  a  straight 
course.  Valleys  must  therefore  be  traversed  by  en- 
bankments  or  viaducts ;  hills  intersected  by  artificial 
chasms.  A  turnpike-road,  on  the  other  hand,  may  be 
carried  in  a  winding  course  through  an  undulating 
country,  avoiding  hills  of  great  acclivity,  and,  though 
the  length  be  increased,  yet  the  expenditure  of  moving 
power  will  be  diminished. 

Of  the  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the  state 
of  society  during  the  last  century,  not  a  few  are  to  be 
attributed  to  the  improved  state  of  communication,  both 
by  land  and  water.  Among  the  ancients,  no  nation 
seems  to  have  appreciated  the  importance  of  having 
good  roads.  The  Romans  constructed  them  on  a  mag- 
nificent scale,  for  military  purposes ;.  and  they  derived 
from  them,  without  doubt,  very  important,  though  inci- 
dental, advantage?,  of  a  commercial  and  social  kind. 
But  even  in  that  country,  the  ordinary  facilities  for  trav- 
elling and  transport  were  vastly  inferior  to  those  which 
exist  at  the  present  day.  Cicero  speaks  of  a  messenger, 
who  was  forty-seven  days  in  going  from  Rome  to  his 
government  in  Cilicia,  in  Asia  Minor,  a  distance,  which 
could  be  easily  traversed,  now,  in  less  than  a  quarter  of 
the  time.  To  carry  letters  from  Rome  to  Gibraltar 
then  required  a  period  of  forty  days.  In  1839,  trav- 
ellers came  from  London  to  Niagara  Falls  in  sixteen 
days ;  and,  in  1S40,  from  Liverpool  to  Boston  in  twelve 
days.  The  state  of  the  roads  in  England,  as  late  as  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  may  be  inferred  from  the  following 
fact,  recorded  in  the  despatches  of  La  Mothe  Fenelon, 
who  was  at  the  time  residing  in  London,  as  French 
ambassador.  Intelligence  of  a  rebellion,  which  broke 
out  in  Yorkshire,  on  the  fifteenth  of  November,  did  not 


KOADS.  241 

reacli  London  till  seven  days  after.  The  same  distance 
is  now  traversed,  by  coach,  over  the  common  road,  in 
twenty-four  hours.* 

It  is  impossible,  in  a  work  like  the  present,  to  specify 
all  the  consequences  which  flow  from  opening  and 
multiplying  the  channels  for  human  business  and  in- 
tercourse. Distant  villages  and  provinces  are  brouglil 
nearer  the  capital.  Nations,  that  were  formerly  stran- 
gers, and  gazed  at  each  other  with  coldness  and  suspi- 
cion, are  now,  by  the  constant  and  familiar  intercourse 
of  their  citizens,  almost  merged  into  one.  Misappre- 
hensions, founded  in  ignorance  and  prejudice,  are  suc- 
ceeded by  the  interchange  of  friendly  offices,  and  active 
commerce.!  Vast  regions,  not  many  years  since  sterile 
and  neglected,  have  been  transformed,  as  if  by  some 
magic  influence,  into  cultivated  fields  and  smihng  land- 
scapes. Of  the  powerful  influence,  which  the  opening 
of  good  roads  has  in  awakening  enterprise  and  improv- 
ing the  condition  of  a  people,  the  following  are  striking, 
but  by  no  means  solitary,  examples. 

'•'  In  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century,  the  communication  from  one  dis- 
trict to  another  was  attended  with  such  difficulty  and 
danger,  that  some  of  the  counties  were  excused  from 
sending  jurors  to  the  circuit,  to  assist  in  the  administra- 
tion of  justice.  The  poor  people  inhabiting  these  dis- 
tricts were  almost  entirely  cut  off"  from  intercourse  with 
the  rest  of  mankind.  The  Highlands  were  of  less  advan- 
tage to  the  British  empire,  than  the  most  distant  colony. 
Parliament  resolved  to  remedy  the  evil ;  and  according- 
ly, from  1802  to  1817,  the  sum  of  two  hundred  thous- 
and pounds  was  laid  out,  in  making  roads  and  bridges 
in  these  mountainous  districts.  Mark  the  important 
consequences  to  the  people  of  the  Highlands,  as  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  Telford,  the  engineer  of  the  roads. 

"  In  these  works,  and  in  the  Caledonian  canal,  about 

*  See  Appendix,  IX. 
t  See  Appendix,  X. 

21  g.   A 


242  LOCOMOTION. 

three  thousand  two  hundred  men  have  been  annually 
employed.  At  first,  they  could  scarcely  v.'ork  at  all ; 
they  were  totally  unacquainted  with  labor ;  they  could 
not  use  the  tools  ;  but  they  have  since  become  excellent 
laborers ;  of  that  number,  we  consider  that  one  fourth 
left  us  annually,  taught  to  work.  These  works  may  be 
considered  in  the  light  of  a  working  academy,  from 
which  eight  hundred  have  annually  departed,  improved 
workmen.  These  men  have  either  returned  to  their 
native  districts,  having  had  the  experience  of  using  the 
most  perfect  sorts  of  tools  and  utensils,  (which  alone 
cannot  be  considered  as  less  than  ten  per  cent,  on  any 
labor.)  or  they  have  been  usefully  disseminated  through- 
out the  country.  Since  these  roads  were  made  acces- 
sible, wheelwrights  and  cartwrights  have  been  estabhsh- 
ed,  the  plough  has  been  introduced,  and  improved  tools 
and  utensils  are  used.  The  plough  was  not  previously 
used  in  general :  in  the  interior  and  mountainous  parts, 
they  frequently  used  crooked  sticks,  with  iron  on  them, 
drawn  or  pushed  along.  The  moral  habits  of  the  great 
mass  of  the  working  classes  are  changed  ;  they  see  that 
they  may  depend  on  their  own  exertions  for  support ; 
this  goes  on  silently,  and  is  scarcely  perceived,  until 
apparent  by  the  results.  I  consider  these  improve- 
ments some  of  the  greatest  blessings  ever  conferred  on 
any  country.  About  two  hundred  thousand  pounds 
have  been  granted,  in  fifteen  years.  It  has  been  the 
means  of  advancing  the  country  at  least  one  hundred 
years."  There  are  many  parts  of  Ireland  which  sus- 
tain the  same  miseries  and  inconveniences  from  the 
want  of  roads,  as  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  did  at  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century.  In  1823,  Mr.  Nimmo, 
the  engineer,  stated  to  Parliament,  that  the  fertile  plains 
of  Limerick,  Cork,  and  Kerry,  were  separated  from 
each  other  by  a  deserted  country,  presenting  an  impas- 
sable barrier  between  them.  This  country  was  the  re- 
treat of  smugglers,  robbers,  and  culprits  of  every  de- 
scription. According  to  another  engineer,  Mr.  Griffith, 
this  tract,  in  1824,  was  a  wild,  neglected,  and  deserted, 


STEAM-BOAT  CONVEYAXCK.  243 

country,  without  roads,  culture,  or  civilization.  The 
government  ordered  roads  to  be  made  through  this  bar- 
ren district.  In  18-29,  in  less  than  five  years  after  the 
commencement  of  the  roads,  Mr.  Griffith  thus  describes 
the  change  which  had  been  produced :  ■•  A  very  con- 
siderable improvement  has  already  taken  place  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  roads,  both  in  the  industry  of  the  inhab- 
itants and  the  appearance  of  the  country.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  the  works,  the  people  flocked  into  them, 
seeking  employment,  at  any  rate  ;  their  looks  haggard, 
their  clothing  wretched ;  they  rarely  possessed  any 
tools  or  implements,  beyond  a  small,  ill-shaped  spade  ; 
and  nearly  the  whole  face  of  the  country  was  unim- 
proved. Since  the  completion  of  the  roads,  rapid 
strides  have  been  made  ;  upwards  of  sixty  new  lime- 
kilns have  been  built ;  carts,  ploughs,  harrows,  and  im- 
proved implements,  have  become  common  ;  new  houses 
of  a  better  class  have  been  built,  new  enclosures  n^de, ' 
and  the  country  has  become  perfectly  tranquil,  and  ex- 
hibits a  scene  of  industry  and  exertion,  at  once  pleasing 
and  remarkable.  A  large  portion  of  the  money  receiv- 
ed for  labor  has  been  husbanded  with  care,  laid  out  in 
building  substantial  houses,  and  in  tiie  purchase  of  stock 
and  agricultural  implements :  and  numerous  examples 
might  be  shown,  of^oor  laborers,  possessing  neither 
money,  houses,  nor  lands,  when  first  employed,  who,  in 
the  past  year,  have  been  enabled  to  take  farms,  build 
houses,  and  stock  their  lands." 

'•'  How  has  the  expedition  of  steam-boat  conveyance*' 
says  Gordon  '•  increased  the  productive  industry  and 
happiness  of  the  land  ?  It  has  brought  the  Scotch  farm- 
er's cattle,  fat  and  fresh,  to  the  London  butcher.  It 
has  brought  the  cotton  manufacturer  of  Dundee  nearer 
to  London  than  the  manufacturer  at  Manchester  is. 
The  northern  producer  and  the  southern  consumer  are 
closer  together.  Our  notions  of  s|)ace,  despatch,  and 
distance,  have  been  completely  altered.  Instead  ot 
measuring  by  miles,  we  compute  by  hours.  Dublin  is 
brought  within  eighty  hours  of  London,  instead  of  be- 


244  LOCOMOTION. 

Ing  sixteen  days  distant.  Edinburgli  is  within  forty 
hours  of  London,  instead  of  being  eight  days  distant : 
but  we  cannot  enumerate  the  various  radiating  hues 
to  which  London  is  the  centre.  These  Unes  have  all 
been  shortened,  at  least  one  half,  and  the  energies  of  the 
kingdom  are  thus  more  compacted  and  concentrated." 

Until  within  a  very  recent  period,  the  use  of  steam 
has  been  confined  to  the  navigation  of  rivers  and  bays, 
or,  at  most,  to  sheltered  seas,  at  no  great  distance  from- 
land.  But  now,  steam-ships  traverse  the  broad  Atlan- 
tic, with  a  confidence  and  safety,  equal  and  even  superi- 
or to  that  of  the  best  ships  moved  by  the  w  inds.  Com- 
munication between  the  old  and  new  world  is  thus  ren- 
dered not  only  frequent  and  rapid,  but  regular.  The 
royal  mail  steam-ships  pass  in  each  direction  between 
Liverpool  and  Boston  every  month,  (and,  after  the  year 
1S40,  they  w-ill  go  twice,  monthly.)  with  an  exactness 
•  in  the  time  of  departure,  and  almost  in  that  of  arrival, 
equal  to  that  of  the  mail  between  two  contiguous  towns. 
A  similar  system  of  mail  communication  is  established 
from  England  to  the  West-India  Islands  and  South 
America,  and  also  to  many  parts  of  the  Eastern  conti- 
nent, especially  to  every  part  of  the  British  possessions. 
By  the  overland  mail  from  India,  which  is  conveyed  by 
steamboats  from  Bombay  to  Suex,  and  from  Alexandria 
to  Europe,  intelligence  is  received  in  England  in  a  lit- 
tle more  than  two  months,  and  in  this  country  in  three 
months,  from  its  date  in  Bombay. 

Recent  improvements  in  rail-roads  and  locomotive 
engines  have,  in  like  manner,  added  greatly  to  the  speed 
and  comfort  of  inland  travelling.  It  is  within  the  recol- 
lection of  persons  now  living,  when  the  journey  from 
Boston  to  New  York,  with  the  best  facilities  of  the  time, 
occupied  six  days  of  diligent  travelling,  and  the  first 
line  of  stagecoaches,  established  at  a  somewhat  later 
period,  occupied  four  entire  days.  Xow,  the  same  dis- 
tance is  traversed,  by  several  routes,  in  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  hours.  A  train  of  cars  arrives  daily  at  Norwich, 
via  Worcester,  from  Boston,  a  distance  of  one  hundred 


RAIL-ROAD  CONVEYANCE.  245 

and  four  miles,  in  four  and  a  half  hours,  and  the  pas- 
sage from  Norwich  to  New  York  is  completed  in  about 
eight  hours.  The  passage  by  the  way  of  Providence 
and  Stonington  is  accomplished  with  equal  speed. 

The  same  rapidity  of  communication  by  rail-road  is 
extended  from  Boston  into  New  Hampshire ;  to  Ports- 
mouth, by  the  way  of  Salem  and  Ncwburyport ;  to  Exe- 
ter, by  the  way  of  Andover  ;  and  to  Nashua,  by  the  way 
of  Lowell ;  and  each  line  of  road  is  likely,  at  no  great 
distance  of  time,  to  be  still  further  extended.  The 
Western  rail-road  is  in  active  operation  from  Boston  to 
Springfield,  on  Connecticut  river,  and  will  soon  be  fin- 
islied  to  Albany,  New  York  ;  where  it  will  connect  itself 
with  a  series  of  rail-roads,  much  of  which  is  complet- 
ed and  the  remainder  nearly  so,  to  Buftalo.  So  that  it 
is  confidently  predicted,  that,  within  a  very  few  years, 
there  will  be  a  rapid  steam  communication,  nearly  all 
by  rail-roads,  between  Boston,  on  the  northeastern 
Atlantic  coast,  and  St.  Louis,  on  the  Mississippi  river. 
Ahnost  every  other  part  of  the  United  States  is  in  like 
manner  traversed  by  rail-roads,  either  finished  or  in 
progress.  From  New  York  to  Philadelphia,  as  well  as 
extensively  in  the  interior  of  Pennsylvania  ;  from  Phil- 
adelphia to  Baltimore  and  Washington  ;  and  from  these 
two  cities  to  Richmond,  Virginia,  and  thence  to  Charles- 
ton, South  Carolina,  and  Savannah,  in  Georgia :  and 
from  several  of  the  Atlantic  cities  to  the  valley  of  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi ;  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same, 
facilities  for  swift  and  easy  communication  are  found  ; 
or  are  in  a  state  of  active  preparation.  Tiie  journey 
from  New  Orleans  to  Boston  is  now  made  in  about  one 
fourth  of  the  time,  and  with  less  than  one  tenth  of  the 
fatigue  and  risk,  that  it  required  only  a  very  few  years 
ago. 

Not  only  are  the  facilities  for  travelling,  and  for  the 
conveyance  of  information  and  of  merchandise,  steadily 
increasing,  by  the  rapid  extension  of  the  roads  them- 
selves, but  the  improvements,  which  are  made  in  their 
construction,  and  in  that  of  the  locomotive  engines  and 
•2]* 


246  THE  PROGRESS  OF  THE  ARTS. 

cars,  add  constantly  to  their  speed,  as  well  as  to  their 
safety  and  comfort.  Two  or  three  years  since,  fifteen 
miles  an  hour  was  thought  exceedingly  rapid  travelling ; 
now,  a  rate  of  more  than  twenty  miles  an  hour  is  main- 
tained, habitually,  on  many  roads  in  this  country  ;  and 
on  the  London  and  Birmingham  rail-road,  one  hundred 
and  twelve  miles,  they  travel  regularly  at  the  rate  of 
twenty-three  or  twenty-four  miles  an  hour.  An  express 
has  been  carried  from  Worcester  to  Boston,  forty-five 
miles,  at  the  rate  of  thirty  miles  an  hour ;  and  on  the 
Great  Western  rail-road  in  England,  expresses  have  been 
carried  at  the  rate  of  sixty  miles,  and  it  is  reported,  oven 
at  the  rate  of  seventy-eight  miles,  an  hour. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  considerable  additions 
will  also  be  made,  at  no  great  distance  of  time,  to  the 
speed  of  steam-boats.  Some  recent  experiments,  with 
Mr.  Smith's  Archimedean  Screw,  and  with  Captain 
Ericson's  Propeller,  seem  to  promise  great  advantages, 
both  in  respect  to  the  speed,  and  to  the  safety  and  fa- 
cility of  management,  of  steam-vessels. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  THE  ARTS. 


In  treating  of  the  Arts,  we  have  already  made  some 
remarks  on  the  improvements  which  they  have  severally 
undergone,  and  the  influence  of  these  improvements,  in 
augmenting  the  physical,  and  even  the  intellectual,  en- 
joj'ments  of  mankind.  It  would  be  interesting,  to  trace 
these  progressive  improvements  more  accurately,  from 
step  to  step ;  to  show  in  what  manner,  and  at  what 
times,  they  arose ;  and  to  survey  the  comparative 
amount  of  domestic  and  personal  comfort  which  has 
oeen  enjoyed  among  civilized  nations,  at  difl'erent  pe- 
riods of  the  world.  The  steps,  by  which  man  has  thus 
gradually  risen  to  a  dominion  over  Nature,  form  one 


THE  PROGRESS   OF  THR   ARTS.  247 

of  the  most  interesting,  and,  at  the  same  time,  one  of 
the  most  nei^lected,  subjects  of  history.  Dazzled  by 
the  splendor  of  courts,  and  by  the  pomp  and  perils  of 
war,  historians  have  generally  lost  sight  of  the  most 
permanent  and  powerful  causes  of  human  welfare. 
Their  works,  too  often,  have  been  but  scandalous  me- 
moirs ;  memoirs  of  the  crimes  and  follies  of  the  great,  and 
of  the  subserviency  and  degradation  of  the  multitude. 
With  how  much  more  of  profit  and  interest  should  we 
peruse  them,  if  they  conducted  us  into  the  habitations 
and  assemblies  of  the  people;  if  they  made  us  ac- 
quainted witii  the  customs,  employments,  and  mode 
of  life,  prevailing  there  ;  if,  by  describing  their  furni- 
ture, implements,  and  habits  of  living,  they  introduced 
us,  as  it  were,  into  their  presence,  and  enabled  us  to 
estimate  their  knowledge  of  the  arts.  We  know,  in- 
deed, no  literary  enterprise,  which  promises  more  for 
rts  author  and  the  public,  than  what  may  be  termed  a 
Material  History  of  our  race. — a  history,  which,  from 
the  rich  materials  scattered  through  the  poets  and  an- 
nalists of  former  ages,  should  draw  a  connected  picture 
of  civilized  life,  as  that  life  has  been  varied,  and,  from 
age  to  age,  improved,  by  the  useful  arts.  Such  a  work 
would  disclose  the  powerful  influence  which  these  arts 
exert,  not  only  on  the  physical,  but  also  on  the  moral 
and  intellectual  well-being  of  man.  It  would  show, 
that  civilization  is  the  work,  not  of  music  or  of  playing 
on  the  flute,  as  the  Athenian  hero  said,  but  of  that  In- 
dustrij.  which  turns  a  small  city  into  a  great  one.  It 
would  bring,  also,  into  broad  relief,  the  agency  which 
Knowledge  exerts,  in  augmenting  human  power  and 
happiness ;  and  would  enable  us  to  contrast  our  own 
condition,  in  these  respects,  with  that  of  our  distant 
ancestors.  It  would  show  how  modern  civilization  has 
been  modified  by  the  industrious  orders  of  society,  and 
would  enforce,  with  new  solemnity  and  emphasis,  the 
momentous  truth,  that  on  their  intelligence  and  virtue 
depend  the  best  interests  of  mankind.  Referring  the 
reader,  for  some  details  on  this  subject,  to  an  article  in 


248  THE  PROGRESS   OF  THE   ARTS. 

the  Appendix,*  I  shall  in  this  place  content  niysell 
with  pointing  out  what  I  conceive  to  be  the  leading 
feature  of  modern,  as  distinguished  from  ancient,  art, 
and  suggesting  some  of  the  consequences,  to  which  the 
change  has  given  rise. 

The  leading  feature,  which  has  characterized  mod- 
ern improvements  in  art,  especially  within  the  last 
century,  is,  the  substitution  of  intelligence  for  mere 
physical  force ;  the  power  of  knowledge  for  the  power 
of  muscle.  The  ancients  were  comparatively  ignorant 
of  the  laws  of  Nature.  They  knew  too  little,  either 
of  the  properties  of  bodies,  or  of  the  laws  of  motion,  to 
accomplish  much  by  machinery  or  artificial  processes. 
Hence  their  reliance  was  placed  mainly  upon  mere 
strength.  Whatever  could  be  effected  by  the  patient 
industry  of  individuals,  or  by  the  combined  force  of 
multitudes,  was  effected  by  them  ;  and  accordingly 
their  temples,  arches,  and  military  works  still  stand, 
unrivalled  monuments  of  munificence  and  patient  toil. 
But  these  very  works  were  deficient  in  many  of  the 
conveniences  which  are  possessed  by  the  humblest 
modern  edifices ;  and  were  reared  by  laborers  who 
lived  in  a  style,  compared  with  which,  that  of  the  mod- 
ern laborer  is  one  of  splendor  and  opulence.  In  mod- 
ern times,  the  nature  of  inanimate  forces  has  been 
carefully  studied.  Mechanical  contrivances,  to  adapt 
them  to  useful  purposes,  have  been  multiplied  with 
astonishing  rapidity ;  and,  availing  ourselves  of  these, 
we  now  attain  our  ends,  not  so  much  by  the  mere 
strength  of  our  bodies,  as  by  the  skill  and  resources  of 
our  minds.  The  ancients,  unable  to  supply  the  ever- 
multiplying  wants  of  our  physical  nature,  inculcated 
the  necessity  of  diminishing  these  wants,  and  practis- 
ing a  rigid  self-denial.  The  moderns,  on  the  contrary, 
believing  that  there  is  no  limit  to  the  powers  of  the 
I  atural  world,  nor  of  man's  inventive  genius,  rather  in- 
vite and  create  new  wants,  that  they  may  devise  the 
means  of  a  prompt  and  cheap  supply.     In  one  word. 

*  See  Appendix,  VI. 


THE  PROGRESS   OF  THE  ARTS.  249 

ancient  art  was  the  offspring  of  necessity  ;  grew  up 
from  random  trials  and  experiments  ;  confined  its  op- 
erations to  a  narrow  circle ;  and  was  encumbered  by 
many  absurd  and  unnecessary  details.  Modern  art, 
on  the  otlier  hand,  is  the  oflspring  of  science,  and,  un- 
der its  guidance,  has  sought  out  the  shortest  and  sim- 
plest route  to  its  ends  ;  pushed  its  labors  into  every  de- 
l>artment  of  the  material  world ;  and  reduced  to  some- 
thing like  order  the  processes  in  every  branch  of  hu- 
man industry. 

What  have  been  the  effects  of  this  change  ?  1.  The 
first  one  entitled  to  notice  is,  the  diminished  respect 
which  is  every  wherc  felt  for  mere  physical  power,  and 
the  increased  regard  which  is  paid  to  intellect  and 
knowledge.  The  time  was,  when  individuals  were 
rated  very  much  according  to  their  bodily  prowess, 
and  when  nations  rested  their  claims  to  glory  and  pre- 
eminence almost  exclusively  on  the  number  and  har- 
dihood of  their  soldier-subjects.  But  in  this  age,  it  is 
far  otherwise.  Even  in  war,  success  is  achieved,  now, 
far  more  by  science  and  skill  than  by  the  mere  physical 
force  of  armies.  In  the  various  pursuits  of  industry, 
as  well  as  in  the  learned  professions,  ascendency  is  pro- 
cured entirclv  by  talents  and  learning.  No  matter  how 
poor  and  contemptible  in  his  outward  presence,  or  how 
deficient  in  muscular  strength,  the  lawyer  or  the  artist, 
who  excels  in  the  knowledge  which  pertains  to  his  pro- 
fession, and  in  the  power  of  applying  that  knowledge, 
promptlv  and  skilfully,  to  each  new  occasion  as  it 
arises,  will  most  assuredly  excel  in  the  acquisition  of 
wealth,  fame,  and  influence.  It  has  been  true,  in  every 
age  of  the  world,  that  knowledge  is  power ;  but  never 
was  this  so  emphatically  true,  as  at  present.  In  pro^ 
portion  as  the  human  mind  is  enlightened,  it  learns  its 
own  dignity ;  discovers  the  magic  influence  conferred 
by  science  on  its  possessor ;  and  comes  to  rate,  at  some- 
thing like  their  real  value,  those  humble  attributes 
which  it  possesses  in  common  with  the  brutes. 

2.  Another  effect  of  this  application  of  science  to  the 


250  THE  PROGRESS  OF  THE  ARTS. 

useful  arts,  and  one  kindred  to  that  first  mentioned,  is, 
the  more  thorough  and  skilful  combination  of  theorij 
icith  practice,  in  other  departments  of  life.  It  is  a 
striking,  and  by  some  has  been  regarded  as  the  essen- 
tial, characteristic  of  this  age,  that  we  view  science  and 
experience  together  as  parts  of  one  whole,  and  strive 
to  make  them  move  side  by  side.  We  employ  expe- 
rience to  verify  and  correct  the  deductions  of  theory, 
and  theory  again  to  enlarge  and  systematize  the  obser- 
vations of  experience.  But  down  to  the  present  time, 
these  two  interests  have  lived  apart :  have  taken  difter- 
ent  routes  ;  have  been  unknown  to  each  other ;  or,  if 
not  unknown,  have  rarely  met  in  order  to  cooperate. 
When,  for  example,  general  principles  or  doctrines 
have  at  any  time  proposed  to  intermeddle  with  the 
affairs  of  government,  they  have  rarely  been  able,  says 
Guizot,  to  effect  it,  "  except  under  the  appearance  and 
by  the  aid  of  fanaticism.  On  the  one  side,  have  been 
mere  theorists. — enthusiasts,  who  would  direct  every 
thing  according  to  abstract  notions  ;  on  the  other,  men 
ignorant  of  all  great  and  comprehensive  principles, — 
experimentalists,  whose  only  guide  was  expediency. 
This  state  of  things  is  happily  drawing  to  a  close.  The 
world  is  less  ready  than  it  once  was,  to  agitate  for  the 
sake  of  some  abstract  principle,  some  fanciful  theory, 
some  Utopian  government,  which  can  only  exist  in  the 
imagination  of  the  enthusiast ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
is  by  no  means  disposed  to  put  up  with  practical  abuses 
and  oppressions,  however  favored  by  prescription  and 
expediency,  where  they  are  opposed  to  the  just  princi- 
ples and  the  legitimate  end  of  government.  To  insure 
respect  and  confidence  now,  statesmen, — nor  they  only, 
but  all  who  in  any  department  undertake  to  direct 
important  interests, — must  unite  theory  and  practice. 
They  must  understand  and  acknowledge  the  influence 
of  both.  They  must  regard,  as  well  principles  as  facts  ; 
must  respect  both  truth  and  necessity:  must  shun,  on 
one  hand,  the  blind  pride  of  the  fanatical  theorist,  and, 
on  the  other,  the  no  less  blind  pritie  of  the  libertine 


THE  PROGRESS   OF  THE   ARTS.  251 

practician."  To  this  better  state  of  things,  wliich  is 
observable  not  only  in  matters  of  government,  but  also 
in  education,  in  the  labors  of  practical  benevolence,  in 
the  concerns  of  domestic  and  public  economy,  various 
causes  have  conduced.  But  to  my  mind,  one  of  the 
main,  if  not  the  main,  cause  of  this  improvement,  will 
be  found  in  the  example,  which,  after  the  publication 
of  the  '  Novum  Organum,'*  was  so  early  set,  of  blend- 
ing physical  science  with  the  labors  of  industry.  The 
immense  advantages,  as  well  to  philosophy  as  to  practi- 
cal life,  which  resulted  from  this  union,  could  hardly 
have  been  lost  on  men  in  other  pursuits.  But  add  to 
this,  the  habits,  which  were  thus  formed,  of  consider- 
ing every  subject  in  connexion  with  all  the  various  cir- 
cumstances and  principles  that  affect  it ;  of  so  calculat 
(ng,  combining,  and  opposing  them,  that,  while  the 
everlasting  principle  was  placed  boldly  and  prominent- 
ly forward,  so  as  not  to  be  mistaken,  care  was  also 
taken,  that  it  should  not  be  endangered  ;  that  its  pro- 
gress should  not  be  retarded  by  a  negligent  or  rash 
estimate  of  the  circumstances  which  oppose  it, — habits 
which  would  naturally  be  transferred  to  other  pursuits, 
and  thus  become  the  usage  and  spirit  of  the  investigat- 
ing and  reflecting  world. f 

3.  Another  eflbct  of  this  change  in  the  arts  is,  to 
render  them  more  respectable.  Among  the  ancients, 
the  various  handicrafts  were  thought  too  degrading  and 
servile,  to  be  practised  by  any  save  slaves  and  women. 
The  processes  were  performed,  as  we  have  already 
said,  with  little  regard  to  principles  ;  and  when  an  im- 
provement was  made,  it  was  regarded  as  a  sort  of  mys- 
tery or  charm,  to  be  concealed  from  the  vulgar  eye, 
and  practised  only  by  adepts.  Gradually,  however,  as 
war  engrossed  less  attention,  and  a  more  decided  taste 
for  physical  conveniences  and  luxuries  began  to  prevail, 

*  A  work  by  Lord  Bacon,  entitled,  '  A''ov7tm  Organum  Scientia- 
rum,'  or  a  new  method  of  employing  tlic  reasoning  faculties  in  the 
pursuit  of  truth. 

t  See  Appendix.  XI. 


252  THE  PROGRESS  OF  THE  ARTS. 

the  useful  arts  rose  in  human  estimation,  and  command- 
ed the  services  of  freemen,  who  formed  a  distinct  class 
of  society,  and  exercised  considerable  political  influ- 
ence. It  was  not,  however,  till  within  the  past  cen- 
tury, that  these  arts  began  to  occupy  their  proper  place. 
During  this  period,  science  has  come  forth  from  the 
cloisters  in  which  she  had  been  previously  buried.  Re- 
cognising the  great  truth,  first  taught  by  Bacon,  that 
"  the  end  of  all  science  is  to  enrich  human  life  with 
useful  inventions  and  arts,"  she  has  employed  herself 
in  studying  and  improving  the  processes  of  the  shop 
and  the  manufactory.  The  finest  minds,  in  the  most 
elevated  classes  of  society,  tiiink  it  no  dcgi-adation, 
now,  to  be  employed  in  superintending  such  opera- 
tions. To  have  at  their  control  the  mighty  and  won- 
der-working energies  of  Nature  is,  they  think,  as  high 
a  prerogative,  as  to  wield  a  disputed  and  imperfect 
sway  over  their  fellowmen.  Engaged  in  contributing, 
in  no  humble  degree,  to  the  power  and  resources  of 
their  country,  in  creating  and  diffusing  the  means  of 
individual  enjoyment,  and  in  enlarging  the  dominion 
of  their  race  over  the  world  of  matter,  they  think  them- 
selves entitled  (and  justly,  too)  to  take  rank  with  the 
members  of  any  other  profession.  It  should  not  be 
omitted,  here,  that,  as  a  class,  the  mechanics  and  man- 
ufacturers hold  the  balance  between  other  important 
interests  ;  and  that,  in  the  history  of  this  country,  they 
have  ever  been  found  exercising  a  commanding  influ- 
ence in  favor  of  an  independent,  united,  and  constitu- 
tional, government. 

4.  Another  eftect  of  the  improvements,  which  have 
taken  place  in  the  useful  arts,  is  one  to  which  we  have 
often  adverted,  already  ;  that  is,  they  greatly  increase 
the  physical  enjoyments  of  mankind.  And  this  effect 
is  by  no  means  to  be  despised.''^     The  happiness  of  a 

*  It  is  not  unusual,  even  now, — formerly,  it  was  very  customary, — 
to  regard  an  increase  of  comforts  as  indicative  of  effeminacy,  or  as 
tending  to  it.  "A  story  is  told  of  a  Highland  chief.  Sir  Evan  Came- 
ron, that  himself  and  a  party  of  his  followers  being  benighted,  and 


THE  PROGRESS  OF  THE  ARTS.  253 

being,  constituted  as  man  is,  depends  not  a  little  on 
his  food,  raiment,  furniture,  implements,  &c.  When 
tiiese  are  abundant,  and  of  good  quality,  they  not  only 
satisfy  the  cravings  of  appetite,  but  serve,  also,  to  re- 
move many  temptations  to  sensuality  and  crime  ;  aflbrd 
leisure  for  intellectual  improvement ;  and,  by  exercising 
thought,  and  gratifying  taste,  tend  to  refine  and  exalt 
the  whole  man.  Hence  it  becomes  an  object  of  high 
importance  to  secure,  for  the  mass  of  a  people,  the 
greatest  possible  amount  of  physical  comforts,  provided 
they  are  the  fruit  of  their  own  industry  and  intelli- 
gence ;  and  this  has  been  one  of  the  most  signal  bene- 
fits conferred  on  mankind  by  modern  art.  One  cannot 
contrast  the  habitations,  dress,  and  style  of  living,  which 
now  prevail,  in  this  and  most  other  countries,  with  tiiose 
which  prevailed  even  only  fifty  years  since,  without  be- 
ing astonished  at  the  improvements  which  have  taken 
place.  The  change  is  such,  that,  were  society  to  de- 
prive itself  of  its  new  luxuries  and  conveniences,  and 
return  to  tlie  condition  in  which  it  was  at  that  period, 
it  would  suffer  both  moral  and  physical  degradation. 
It  is  stated,  for  instance,  by  a  late  writer,  that  he  can 

coiiipelled  to  sleep  in  the  open  air,  when  his  son  rolled  up  a  ball  of 
snow  and  laid  his  liead  upon  it  for  a  pillow,  the  rough  old  man  kick- 
ed it  away,  exclaiming,  *  AVhat,  sir,  are  you  turning  effeminate?' 
We  doubt  whether  Sir  Evan  Cameron  and  his  men  were  braver  than 
the  English  officers  who  fought  at  Waterloo  ;  and  yet  many  of  these 
marched  from  the  ball-room  at  Brussels,  in  their  holyday  attire,  and 
won  the  battle  in  silk  stockings.  It  is  an  old  notion,  that  plenty  of 
the  necessaries  and  conveniences  of  life  renders  a  nation  feeble,  ^^'e 
are  told  that  the  Carthaginian  soldiers,  whom  Hannibal  carried  into 
Italy,  were  suddenly  rendered  eflfeminate  by  the  abundance  which 
they  found  around  them  at  Capua.  The  commissariat  of  modern  na- 
tions goes  upon  another  principle  ;  and  believes,  that,  unless  the  sol- 
dier has  plenty  of  food  and  clothing,  he  will  not  fight  with  alacrity 
and  steadiness.  The  half-starved  soldiers  of  Henry  the  Fifth  won 
the  battle  of  Agincourt  ;  but  it  was  not  because  they  were  half-starv- 
ed, but  because  they  roused  their  native  courage  to  cut  their  way 
out  of  the  peril  by  which  they  were  surrounded.  When  we  hear  of 
ancient  nations  being  enervated  by  abundance,  we  may  be  sure,  that 
the  abundance  was  almost  entirely  devoured  by  a  few  tyrants,  aud 
that  the  bulk  of  the  poor  were  rendered  weak  by  destitution." — 
Rie;hts  of  Industry. 

22  S.   A. 


254  THE   PROGRESS   OF  THE   ARTS 

remember  when  the  first  carpet  and  the  first  umbrella 
were  seen  in  a  town  little  more  than  one  hundred  miles 
from  London,  and  that,  not  more  than  fifty-five  years 
ago  ;  that  in  the  most  respectable  dwellings  in  the 
country  villages  of  England,  stone  or  brick  floors  were, 
at  that  time,  almost  the  only  ones  in  use  ;  that  the  cot- 
tages of  the  peasantry  were  almost  universally  without 
flooring,  or  plaster,  or  ceiling  ;  and  that,  in  houses  where 
glass  tumblers,  earthen-ware  dishes,  and  knives  and 
forks,  are  now  regarded  (.as  absolutely  indispensable, 
they  had  then  no  drinking-cups,  except  those  made  of 
tin  or  horn  ;  scarcely  any  dishes,  except  the  wooden 
trencher ;  used,  in  many  cases,  a  lock  of  wool  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  a  fork,  and  benches  and  jointstools  in  the 
place  of  chairs  and  tables. 

It  is  little  more  than  a  century,  since  the  ordinary 
state  of  one  of  the  most  frequented  roads  in  England 
was  such,  that  it  took  Prince  George  of  Denmark,  who 
was  on  his  way  to  meet  the  King  of  Spain,  near  Ports- 
mouth, six  hours,  to  travel,  by  coach,  a  distance  of  nine 
miles;  and  then  the  coach,  as  the  Annalist  states,  had 
to  be  "  poised  by  the  nimble  boors  of  Sussex,"  who  fre- 
quently bore  it  almost  on  their  shoulders,  to  save  it  from 
being  overturned  or  stuck  fast  in  the  mire. 

If  we  go  back  to  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, — associated 
in  our  minds  with  splendid  processions  and  gorgeous 
festivals ;  when  nobles  kept  on  foot  several  hundred 
retainers  and  followers ;  when  her  Majesty  ransacked 
Europe,  and  even  Asia,  for  the  materials  of  her  ward- 
robe ;  when  Burleigh  counselled,  and  Leicester  in- 
trigued, and  Raleigh  planned,  and  Bacon,  like  anoth- 
er Moses,  pointed  out  to  scholars  the  way  to  their  land 
of  promise  ;  and  Spenser,  and  Sidney,  and  Shakspeare, 
poured  forth  the  strains  which  still  vibrate  in  our  ears 
and  on  our  hearts, — what,  at  that  brilliant  epoch,  were 
the  domestic  accommodations  of  the  people,  and  even 
of  the  high-born  and  high-bred  gentry,  of  the  land .'' 
We  have  all  heard  of  the  substantial  breakfasts  of  her 
Majesty's  maids  of  honor,  on  beef  and  ale  ;  but  it  has 


THE  PROGRESS   OF  THE   ARTS.  255 

not  occurred  to  us,  perhaps,  that  these  materials  were 
used,  not  only  at  that  repast,  but  also  at  noonday  and 
evening,  for  the  simple  reason,  that  there  was  nothing 
else  for  them.  The  favorite  beverage  of  the  sex,  in  our 
age,  was  then  unknown.  The  Vegetables,  which  now 
load  the  tables  of  every  class,  had  not  been  introduced 
into  ordinary  culture ;  and  it  was  only  the  most  opu- 
lent, who  could  aflbrd  the  luxury,  even  of  a  potato,  or 
a  radish.  Yeomen  of  the  best  condition  subsisted  on 
oat  and  rye  bread,  and  i)ottage  ;  and  not  even  royalty 
itself  was  indulged  with  wiiat  is  now  rarely  denied  to 
the  beggar, — that  is,  knit  hose,  or  stockings,  while  the 
raiment,  furniture,  and  houses,  of  the  most  respectable 
commonalty,  were  such  as  the  parish  pauper  of  the 
nineteenth  century  would  consider  insufferable.  And 
yet  tliis  reign  was  considered,  by  those  who  had  known 
England  in  former  ones,  as  remarkable  for  its  luxuries. 
In  the  discourse  prefixed  to  HoUingshed's  Chronicle, 
which  was  published  in  this  reign,  the  old  men  are  de- 
scribed as  mourning  bitterly  over  the  degeneracy  of  the 
times.  There  were  three  things,  especially,  which,  in 
their  estimation,  were  marvellously  altered  for  the  worse, 
since  their  young  days ; — "  The  first  was,  tlie  multitude 
of  chimneys  lately  erected  ;  whereas,"  say  they,  "  in 
oiu-  young  days,  there  were  but  two  or  three,  if  so  many, 
in  most  uplandish  towns  of  the  realm ;  the  religious 
houses  and  manor  houses  of  their  lords  always  excepted. 
But  each  made  his  fire  against  a  rere  dosse  in  the  hall 
where  he  dined  and  dressed  his  meat,  the  smoke  find- 
ing its  way  out  as  it  could."  The  second  was  the  great 
alteration  in  lodging;"  for,"  say  they,  "our  fathers  and 
ourselves  have  lain  full  oft  on  straw  pallets,  covered 
only  with  a  sheet,  under  coverlets  of  dagswaine,  and  a 
good  round  log  under  our  head,  as  a  bolster.  If  it  were 
so  that  the  father  or  good  man  of  the  house  had  a  mat- 
trass  or  flock  bed,  and  thereon  a  sack  of  chalV,  to  rest 
his  head  upon,  he  thought  himself  as  well  lodged  as  the 
lord  of  the  town."  Pillows  were  thought  fit  only  for 
sick  women  :  and  the  author  himself,  as  we  have  seen 


256  THE  PROGRESS  OF  THE  ARTS. 

in  a  former  Chapter,  complains  most  pathetically,  that 
■'•  nothing  was  then  required  for  building  houses,  but 
oak ;  for,"  says  he,  "  when  our  houses  were  built  of 
willow,  then  we  had  oaken  men ;  but  now  that  our 
houses  are  come  to  be  made  of  oak,  our  men  are  not  on- 
ly become  willow,  but  a  great  many  altogether  straw." 

Such  was  life  in  England,  in  the  days  of  the  Re- 
formation ;  and  what  was  it,  think  we,  in  earlier  and 
darker  days,  before  religious  and  intellectual  freedom 
gave  impulse  to  the  spirit  of  improvement ;  before  the 
invention  of  the  printing-press  and  the  mariner's  com- 
pass, those  prime  movers  of  civilization  ;  when  the  pack- 
horse  was  the  only  vehicle  of  commerce',  and  clotli  was 
spun  and  woven,  and  grain  was  ground,  and  the  earth 
tilled,  and  metals  worked,  entirely  by  hand  ?  Xay,  if 
we  would  measure  the  influence  of  the  useful  arts,  we 
must  go  back  to  Greece  ;  and  there,  even  in  her  high 
and  palmy  state,  when  every  grove  was  sacred  to  phi- 
losophy and  the  muses  ;  when  every  hill  top  w^as  crowned 
with  monuments  of  taste  and  beauty,  which  will  be  the 
wonder  of  all  ages  ;  when  Pericles  touched  with  mas- 
ter hand  the  springs  of  popular  feeling,  and  wielded,  at 
will,  the  fierce  democracy  ;  even  there,  and  then,  we 
shall  meet  a  people,  who,  in  the  language  of  the  learned 
Goguet,  were  little  skilled  in  providing  conveniences  ; 
who  were  unacquainted  with  the  use  of  linen,  or  shoes, 
or  stockings  ;  whose  coats  had  neither  buttons  nor  but- 
ton holes ;  who  knew  the  use,  neither  of  stirrujjs,  to 
mount,  nor  of  saddles,  to  keep  themselves  on  horseback  ; 
who  were  ignorant  of  the  art  of  lighting  themselves  by 
the  use  of  wax  or  tallow  ;  and  had  neither  wind  nor 
water  mills,  nor  clockwork,  nor  telescopes,  nor  chemical 
fluxes.* 

5.  Another  effect  of  these  improvements  in  the  arts 
is,  an  increased  economy,  AN-^hen  the  use  of  artificial 
products  was  confined,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  rich, 
and  but  few  persons  were  engaged  in  manufacturing 

*  See  Appendix,  VI. 


THE   PROGRESS   OF  THE    ARTS.  257 

them,  there  was  Httle  occasion  to  study  economy. 
But  now,  when  the  mass  of  the  community  seek  to  en- 
joy these  products,  it  is  all  important  to  make  them 
cheap ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  such  keen  competition 
prevails,  among  the  makers  of  any  article,  that  nothing 
bvit  the  utmost  economy,  in  conducting  every  part  of 
ihe  manufacture,  will  enable  an  individual  to  secure  a 
market,  and  yet  command  an  adequate  profit.  It  has 
accordingly  become  one  great  aim  of  the  artisan,  in 
conducting  his  business,  '■  to  gather  up  the  fragments, 
that  nothing  be  lost."  In  respect  to  labor  and  time, 
this  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  machinery ;  by  the 
substitution  of  artificial  for  slower  natural  processes  ; 
and  also  by  a  device  called  the  division  of  labor,  which 
consists  in  such  a  distribution  of  the  several  parts  of  an 
operation,  among  workmen  of  difFercnt  ages  and  ca- 
pacities, that  each  one  shall  have  constant  occupation 
for  all  his  powers,  and,  by  being  confined  to  the  same 
work,  shall  acquire  greatly-increased  dexterity,  while 
he  also  saves  the  time  which  would  be  lost  in  passing 
from  one  thing  to  another.  In  respect  to  matei'ials, 
also,  amazing  progress  has  been  made  in  economy. 
We  seem  to  be  approaching  a  time,  when  valuable  use 
will  be  found  for  every  thing,  however  vile  and  appa- 
rently worthless.  Take  rags,  for  example.  When  they 
have  ceased  to  be  fit  covering  even  for  the  beggar,  and 
are  cast  out,  loaded  with  filth,  they  are  carefully  collect- 
ed, transported  as  precious  freight  from  one  country  to 
another,  and,  after  being  washed  and  bleached,  and 
subjected  to  the  operation  of  cutters  and  presses,  come 
forth  a  beautiful  white  fabric,  ready  to  receive  and 
transmit  to  distant  places  or  ages,  the  records  of  wis- 
dom, or  the  messages  of  business,  or  the  confidential 
breathings  of  friendship.  So  bones  and  offal,  which 
liave  been  thrown  into  the  streets,  are  picked  up,  and 
carried  to  the  sal-ammoniac  factory,  where,  after  being 
boiled,  distilled,  vfcc.  they  yield  grease  for  soap  ;  an  oil, 
which,  on  being  burned  in  close  apartments,  deposits 
the  black  soot  called  lampblack  ;  and  aflford,  at  the  same 


253  THE  PR0GKES5  OF  THE  ARTS. 

time,  the  carbonate  of  ammonia,  or  hartshorn,  the  sul- 
phate of  soda,  or  Glauber's  salt,  and  lastly,  sal-ammo- 
niac, or  muriate  of  ammonia.  Horns,  which  are  at- 
tached to  hides  when  purchased  by  the  tanner,  are  sep- 
arated, sold  to  the  makers  of  combs  and  lanterns,  who 
extract  combs  from  one  part ;  knife  handles,  the  tops 
of  whips,  dec,  from  another  ;  glue,  again,  from  another  ; 
fat  for  soap,  from  another  ;  the  transparent  part  of  lan- 
terns, from  another  ;  and,  finally,  by  grinding  down  the 
bony  substance,  which  remains  after  all  these  operations, 
they  have  a  manure,  which  they  sell  to  the  farmer.  It 
would  be  easy  to  multiply  examples  of  this  kind,  to  any 
extent.  The  prussiate  of  potash,  a  beautiful  crystallized 
mineral,  which  is  seen  in  the  shops  of  the  chemist,  is  pro- 
duced from  the  hoofs  of  horses  and  cattle  ;  a  black 
dye,  for  the  use  of  cahco  printers,  is  extracted  from  old 
tin  kettles  and  worn-out  coal  scuttles  ;  bread,  which, 
though  not  very  palatable,  is  still  nutritious  and  digest- 
ible, and  by  no  means  disagreeable,  has  been  obtained 
from  sawdust !  and  linen  rags,  mixed  with  a  common 
acid,  have  been  made,  by  chemists,  to  yield  more  than 
their  own  weight  of  sugar. 

Such  are  some  of  the  effects  produced  by  a  more 
systematic  and  general  application  of  science  to  the 
arts.  They  are,  indeed,  astonishing.  Had  they  been 
predicted  a  century  ago,  the  prediction  would  undoubt- 
edly have  been  received  with  the  greatest  ridicule  and 
incredulity.  But,  developed  as  they  have  been,  grad- 
ually, they  have  only  taught  us,  that  things,  regarded 
as  impossible  in  one  generation,  may  become  easy  in 
the  next,  and  that  the  power  of  man  over  Nature  has 
scarcely  any  limit,  provided  he  understands  and  re- 
spects her  laws.  We  look  back,  with  no  little  feeling 
of  superiority,  on  men  who  lived  seventy  years  since, 
before  the  invention  of  the  steam-engine,  spinning-jen 
ny,  and  pov.er-loom.  These  three  inventions,  alone, 
seem  to  have  altered  the  whole  face  of  civihzation,  and 
added  immeasurably  to  tlie  enjoyments  and  resources 
of  our  race.     Who  shall  sav,  that  the  next  fifty  years 


THE   PROGRESS  OF  THE   ARTS.  259 

will  not  bring  to  light  yet  more  powerful  instruments 
than  these ;  and  cause  the  men  of  a  more  favored 
age  to  look  back  on  ours  as  one  of  comparative  imbe- 
cility. Indeed,  when  we  tinnk  of  the  powers  which 
Nature  may  yet  liavc  in  reserve  for  the  service  of  man  ; 
wjien  wc  think  of  the  new  combinations  of  machinery 
which  his  ever-fertile  ingenuity  may  yet  devise  ;  there 
seems  to  be  hardly  any  conceivable  limit  to  the  degree 
in  wiiich  the  average  physical  condition  of  the  human 
family  may  be  improved.  Science  has  but  begun  her 
career  of  discovery.  Occupying  higher  posts  of  ob- 
servation, iiaving  more  perfect  instruments,  improved 
methods  of  investigation,  and  an  inniiensely-augmented 
number  of  observers,  her  former  success  has  only  pre- 
pared her  for  yet  more  brilliant  conquests.  And  with 
the  habits  which  now  prevail,  among  botli  philosophers 
and  artisans,  such  conquests  cannot  long  remain  bar- 
ren. Each  new  principle  will  be  tried  and  tortured, 
till  it  yields  a  profit  to  its  discoverer,  and  adds  its  share 
to  the  great  sum  of  human  blessings. 

We  ask,  in  conclusion,  what  part  shall  be  taken  in 
this  work  by  the  scholars  and  artisans  of  America? 
They  occupy  a  position  peculiarly  favorable  for  enlarg- 
ing this  domain  of  the  arts.  In  this  country,  there  are 
noartiticial  barriers  in  the  way  of  discovery  or  invention. 
Genius,  here,  needs  no  titled  patron.  Art  is  hampered 
by  no  restrictions.  The  mechanic  need  not  be  confined, 
for  life,  to  the  place  of  his  birth,  as  he  virtually  is  by 
tlie  law  of  residence  in  England.  He  is  not  compelled, 
as  on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  to  wait  till  he  has  gained 
admission  to  some  privileged  craft  or  corporation,  before 
he  can  be  allowed  to  set  up  for  himself.  His  energies 
are  not  paralysed  by  the  reflection,  that  every  profession 
and  trade  is  already  crowded,  and  that  there  is  no  de- 
mand for  his  talents  and  industry.  With  a  vast  terri- 
tory, yet  unpeopled,  before  him  ;  his  labor  in  such  de- 
mand, that  enterprise  cannot  remain  a  week  unoccupied 
or  unrewarded ;  privileged  to  select  his  own  profession, 
and  to  prosecute  it  with  nil  the  powers  which  the  Crea- 


260        INFLUENCE  OF  THE  USEFUL  ARTS. 

tor  has  given  him  ;  he  has  motives  to  exertion  and  im- 
provement, never  before  vcuchi?afed  to  the  mechanical 
and  agricultural  population  of  any  country.  With  these 
advantages,  then,  let  him  combine  a  diligent  study  of 
the  principles  of  Nature.  Let  him  reflect  upon  the  laws 
which  regulate  the  processes  of  his  art,  and  endeavor, 
by  every  means,  to  enlarge  his  mind,  and  prepare  it  for 
original  and  independent  inquiries.  Let  him  consider 
that  he  lives  and  acts  in  the  very  vicinity  of  properties 
and  powers  yet  undiscovered,  but  which,  when  once 
known,  will  affect  the  condition  of  the  civilized  world. 
Why,  then,  should  not  he  aspire  to  the  honor  of  first 
perceiving  and  unfolding  these  powers  ?  What  shall 
prevent  him,  if  his  mind  be  but  enriched  from  the  stores 
of  science,  from  exchanging  the  humble  condition  of  a 
mere  laborer,  for  that  of  a  teacher  and  benefactor  to  his 
whole  race?  Nothing  is  needed,  to  fit  him  for  such  a 
work,  but  the  awakening  influence  of  knowledge,  the 
invigorating  exercise  of  thought,  and  the  firm  purpose, 
that,  with  the  permission  of  God,  he  will  tread,  though 
at  an  humble  distance,  in  the  footsteps  of  a  Franklin,  a 
Whitney,  or  a  Fulton.^ 


CHAPTER  XV. 

INFLUENCE  OF  THE  USEFUL  ARTS  ON  NATIONAL  WELFARE. 

I  HAVE  frequently  had  occasion,  in  the  course  of  this 
work,  to  illustrate  the  connexion  between  the  useful 
arts  and  individual  comfort.  It  has  appeared,  that 
every  improvement  in  the  principles  or  processes  of  an 
art  has  resulted  in  a  substantial  addition  to  the  aggre- 
gate physical  enjoyments  of  mankind,  and  has  tended  to 
lessen  the  distance  which  divides  the  less  affluent  from 
the  more  afl[luent  classes  of  society.     I  propose,  in  this 

*  See  Appendix,  IV. 


ON  NATIONAL  WELFARE.  261 

CJiapter,  to  discuss  the  influence  exerted  by  the  culti- 
vation of  the  useful  arts  on  national  prosperil}). 

Tiie  prosperity  of  a  jieople  depends,  otiier  things 
being  equal,  on  the  amount  and  due  distribution  of 
property ;  since  property  alone  gives  the  command, 
not  only  of  physical  comforts,  but  of  knowledge,  refine- 
ment, and  religious  privilege, — the  true  elements  of 
human  happiness  or  prosperity. 

Now,  the  amount  of  property,  possessed  by  a  people, 
will  depend  on  the  amount  of  labor  and  skill  which 
they  apply,  in  developing  their  natural  advantages  and 
resources.  These  resources  have,  in  themselves,  no 
value  ;  that  is,  they  make  no  spontaneous  contributions 
to  the  wealth  or  prosperity  of  a  nation.  The  soil  does 
not,  of  itself,  bear  the  requisite  kind  and  quality  of  food  ; 
the  mine  yields  up,  without  labor,  no  implements  of 
use  or  articles  of  luxury  ;  the  forest  forms  itself  into  no 
convenient  and  comfortable  abode  for  human  beings. 
There  must  be  industry  ;  that  is,  the  application,  by 
men  of  muscular  strength  and  intelligence,  in  order  to 
educe  from  these  natural  sources,  the  substances  and 
forms  which  are  fitted  to  satisfy  the  wants,  and  promote 
the  enjoyment,  of  mankind.  The  extent  to  which  this 
is  done  will  depend,  first,  u|)on  the  amount  of  muscular 
effort  which  is  applied  ;  secondly,  and  much  more,  upon 
the  amount  of  intelligence  ;  and  thirdly,  upon  the  extent 
to  which  the  natural  capabilities  of  the  country  are  im- 
proved. It  it  with  a  nation,  as  with  an  individual.  In 
proportion  as  there  is  more  labor ;  as  that  labor  is  more 
skilfully  directed ;  and  as  that  skill  and  labor  cooper- 
ate with  more  efficient  natural  and  artificial  agents  ;  in 
that  proi)ortion  will  there  be  more  produced,  or  a  greater 
adtlition  be  made  to  what  is  usually  termed  exchange- 
able value. 

To  give  greater  interest,  as  well  as  definiteness,  to 
the  discussion  proposed,  I  shall  conduct  it  with  special 
reference  to  our  own  country.  It  is  well  known,  that 
there  has  been  much  difference  of  opinion  among  us, 
•from  a  very  early  period,  in  respect  to  the  relative  in 


'262  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  USEFUL  ARTS,  ETC. 

liuence  and  importance  of  agriculture,  commerce,  and 
manufactures.  This  difference  I  cannot  hope  to  adjust, 
and  I  shall  not,  on  this  occasion,  attempt  to  draw  any 
comparisons.  I  do  not  propose  to  inquire,  whether, 
among  a  people  situated  as  ours  is,  agriculture  or  man- 
ufactures be  the  more  productive  ;  but  simply  whether, 
in  order  to  the  attainment  of  the  largest  prosperity,  the 
latter  be  not  important,  as  well  as  the  former ;  not 
whether  the  other  useful  arts  ought  to  be  cultivated  to 
the  exclusion  of  husbandry,  but  whether  they  ought 
not  to  be  carried  on  in  conjunction  with  it :  not  wheth- 
er we  should  forego  the  moral  and  political  advantages 
which  we  derive  from  the  preponderance  in  our  popu- 
lation of  a  sturdy,  independent  yeomanry,  but  whether, 
with  these  advantages,  we  ought  not  to  combine  those  of 
an  economical  and  intellectual  character,  which  might 
be  derived  from  building  up,  on  our  own  soil,  the  vari- 
ous useful  and  ornamental  arts. 

I.  Employment. — In  which  of  these  ways,  then,  by 
neglecting  or  encouraging  the  various  useful  arts,  shall 
we  provide,  most  effectually,  in  the  first  place,  for  the 
productive  employment  of  all  our  population.  Evi- 
dently, the  first  element  in  a  nation's  prosperity  is,  to 
have  all  the  people  employed,  and  employed  produc- 
tively ;  to  have  the  greatest  practicable  amount  of  mus- 
cular effort  applied  continually  to  useful  labor.  Now, 
it  is  evident,  that,  in  this  country  especially,  agriculture 
cannot  give  constant  and  profitable  occupation  to  all 
our  labor.  The  climate  and  habits  of  society  do  not 
permit  females  to  participate  in  the  labors  of  the  field: 
and  the  domestic  occupation  furnished  by  a  farm  can, 
in  the  absence  of  spinning  and  weaving,  (which  few 
farmers  think  now  of  carrying  on,)  furnish  only  partial 
employment  to  the  average  number  of  females  who  live 
in  the  country.  So  with  children,  and  persons  who 
have  become  disabled  from  field  labor,  by  age  or  dis- 
ease,— they  are  often  competent  to  render  service,  but 
it  is  service  for  which  there  is  little  or  no  demand  upon 
%  farm.     Add  to  this,  that  the  labors  of  the  adult  liu9- 


EMPLOYMENT.  '263 

baiulinau  are  often  suspended,  by  the  inclemency  of  the 
weather,  even  in  Summer,  and  in  Winter  ^ve  employ- 
ment to  little  more  than  half  his  time  ;  and  that,  owing 
to  the  impossibility  of  introducing  a  perfect  division  of 
labor  in  farming,  the  robust  adult  is  often  engaged  on 
work  which  might  as  well  be  performed  by  a  child  ; 
and  it  will  be  seen,  that,  where  agriculture,  or  agricul- 
ture and  commerce,  (for  the  latter  employs  only  males, 
and  principally  adult  males.)  constitute  the  only  pursuits 
of  a  people,  tliere  must  be  a  vast  amount  of  labor  con- 
stantly unoccupied  ;  consuming,  but  doing  nothing  to 
reproduce. 

The  various  arts  and  manufactures  furnish  an  obvi- 
ous expedient  for  employing  this  labor,  and  rendering  it 
productive.  They  afford  occupation  proportioned  to 
every  variety  of  capacity.  "  In  my  recent  tour,"  says 
Dr.  Ure,  speaking  of  England  and  Scotland  ;  "  in  my 
recent  tour  through  tiie  manufacturing  districts,  I  have 
seen  tens  of  thousands  of  old,  young,  and  middle  aged, 
of  both  sexes,  many  of  them  too  feeble  to  get  their  dai- 
ly bread,  by  any  of  the  former  modes  of  industry,  earn- 
ing abundant  food,  raiment,  and  domestic  accommo- 
dations, without  perspiring  at  a  single  pore,  screened, 
mean-while,  from  the  Summer's  sun  and  Winter's  frost, 
in  apartments  more  airy  and  salubrious  than  those  of 
the  metropolis,  in  which  our  legislative  and  fashionable 
aristocracies  assemble.  In  these  spacious  halls,  the  be- 
nignant power  of  steam  summons  around  him  his  wil- 
ling subjects,  and  assigns  to  each  the  regulated  task  ; 
substituting,  for  painful  muscular  effort,  on  their  part, 
the  energies  of  his  own  gigantic  arm,  and  demanding, 
in  return;  only  attention  and  dexterity,  to  correct  such 
little  aberrations  as  casually  occur  in  his  w  orkmanship." 
It  is  estimated,  that,  in  the  United  States,  about  one  fif- 
teenth of  all  the  persons  employed  in  manufactories  are 
children  under  twelve  years  :  that  nearly  two  thirds  of 
the  whole  number  are  females  ;  and  that  of  the  residue,  a 
large  proportion  are  young  persons  under  eighteen.  The 
Lowell  manufactories  alone  give  employment  to  more 


264      INFLUENCE  OF  THE  USEFUL  ARTS,  ETC. 

than  five  thousand  females  ;  and  throughout  the  whole 
of  New  England,  if  we  include  the  manufacturing  car- 
ried on  in  private  houses,  we  should  probably  find,  that 
not  less  than  one  hundred  thousand  females  are  profit- 
ably employed  by  the  various  arts  and  handicrafts  ;  of 
which  number,  but  a  small  proportion  could  find  work, 
in  connexion  with  farming,  or  as  domestics  in  cities. 
These  females  receive,  on  the  average,  two  dollars  a 
week,  in  addition  to  board,  so  that  the  weekly  wages  of 
one  hundred  thousand  would  amount  to  two  hundred 
thousand  dollars,  and  to  ten  millions  four  hundred  thous- 
and dollars  a  year :  and,  if  to  this  we  add  the  wages 
paid  to  children,  who  otherwise  would  find  nothing  like 
adequate  employment,  we  shall  have  a  total  of  not  less, 
probably,  than  fifteen  millions  of  dollars,  in  the  form  of 
wages,  paid  annually,  in  New  England,  by  the  mechan- 
ic and  other  arts,  to  women  and  children,  of  which,  a 
very  large  proportion,  probably  not  less  than  one  third 
or  one  half,  is  clear  gain. 

Even  in  New  England,  however,  there  is  still  lying 
dormant  a  vast  amount  of  industry,  which  might  be 
awakened,  and  rendered  eminently  productive,  by  en- 
terprise and  capital,  if  they  were  judiciously  applied  to 
the  various  arts  and  handicrafts. 

II.  Productive  Employment. — But  the  useful  arts 
contribute  to  tiie  productive  energies  of  a  people,  not 
merely  by  affording  more  employment  for  labor  ;  they 
tend,  also,  to  render  that  labor  more  skilful  and  efficient. 
The  efficiency  of  labor  depends,  of  course,  on  the  intel- 
ligence and  spirit  which  directs  it,  much  more  than  on 
the  mere  amount  of  muscular  effort.  Hence,  the  na- 
tion, which  would  develope  most  rapidly  its 'resources, 
should  aim,  first  of  all,  to  awaken  and  enlighten  mind  ; 
to  train  the  people  to  habits  of  active  thought  and  in- 
vestigation ;  to  incite  them  to  the  discovery  and  prac- 
tical application  of  those  natural  laws,  which  govern  tiic 
operations  of  industry,  and  above  all,  to  give  them  tem- 
perate and  virtuous  habits.  Now,  the  cultivation,  to- 
gether with  agriculture,  of  the  other  useful  arts,  pro- 


PRODUCTIVE  EMPLOYMENT.  265 

duces  this  effect.  It  quickens  the  general  inteUigence 
of  a  people,  and  prompts  them  to  the  most  productive 
apphcation  of  their  labor. 

1,  It  docs  this,  in  the  first  place,  by  affording  scope 
for  every  variety  of  talent  and  taste.  Many  minds, 
which  would  remain  forever  inactive,  if  confined  to  the 
labors  of  tiie  field,  might  be  roused  to  strenuous  and 
even  brilliant  exertion,  in  the  workshop  or  manufactory, 
because  there  they  would  find  the  peculiar  employment 
for  which  tliey  seem  to  have  been  formed. 

2.  In  the  second  place,  the  cultivation  of  tlic  useful 
arts  promotes  activity  of  mind,  by  bringing  men  togeth- 
er, inciting  them  to  competition,  and  opening  an  in- 
definite career  for  improvement.  Social  as  we  are  by 
nature,  we  are  rarely  roused  to  the  exertion  of  all  our 
energies  till  we  are  brought  into  contact,  and  in  some 
measure  into  collision,  with  our  fellow-men,  and  espec- 
ially with  those  engaged  in  the  same  pursuit.  This 
effect  is  evidently  attained  in  the  various  arts,  espec- 
ially where  they  are  carried  on  in  large  manufacto- 
ries, and  attained  more  completely  than  is  practicable 
in  the  operations  of  agriculture.  It  should  be  consid- 
ered, too,  that  the  parts  of  a  process  are  so  graduated, 
that  there  is  occupation  for  every  degree  of  strength, 
skill,  and  talent,  so  that  a  child,  who  enters  a  manu- 
factory, can  see  open  before  him  a  perfect  series  of  em- 
ployments, ascending,  regularly,  from  the  carding  room 
to  the  throstle-frame,  from  the  throstle-frame  to  the 
office  of  Superintendent,  Engineer,  or  even  Proprietor, 
each  employment  calling  for  greater  intelligence  and 
skill  than  the  last,  and  each  proportionably  more  lucra- 
tive and  respectable.  Tiie  idea  of  confining  an  indi- 
vidual, for  life,  to  a  single  operation,  is  now  discarded 
from  factory  labor.  Instead  of  having  to  spend  a  long- 
apprenticeship,  before  his  hand  and  eye  become  suffi- 
ciently skilled  for  certain  mechanical  feats,  the  system 
of  decomposing  a  process  into  its  constituent  parts,  and 
embodying  each  part  in  a  machine,  enables  him,  if  he 
be  a  person  of  common  care  and  capacity,  to  take  charge 

23  s.  A. 


266     INFLUENCE  OF  THE  USEFUL  ARTS,  ETC. 

of  almost  any  part,  after  a  short  probation.  On  an  emer- 
gency, or  when  interest  invites  hmi,  he  can  transfer  his 
services  to  another  department,  thus  varying  his  task, 
enlarging  his  views,  and  becoming  gradually  acquainted 
with  every  physico-mechanical  combination.  Indeed, 
the  whole  atmosphere  of  a  large  manufactory  is  rife 
with  an  intelligent  activity,  which  extends  its  influence, 
not  only  to  the  inmates,  but  to  the  agricultural  popula- 
tion of  the  vicinity. 

3.  There  is  another  way.  in  wliich  the  useful  arts 
contribute  to  quicken  and  enlarge  the  intelligence  of  a 
people.  In  the  operations  of  an  art,  especially  of  those 
which  are  most  improved,  men  behold  a  most  striking 
and  constant  proof  of  the  power  of  knowledge,  and  of 
comprehensive  thought.  The  province  of  the  husband- 
man is  apparently  limited  to  depositing  his  seed.  The 
elements,  over  which  he  has  but  little  control,  cause  it 
to  germinate  and  spring  up ;  and  there  are  countless 
influences,  beyond  his  reach,  some  friendly  and  some 
adverse,  which  will  contribute  to  ripen  or  to  blight  the 
harvest.  But  in  the  operations  of  a  large  manufactory, 
mind  seems  to  have  won  a  perfect  mastery  even  over 
the  elements  of  Nature.  The  fierce  torrent  is  made  to 
give  motion  to  the  most  delicate  and  nicely-adjusted 
mechanism.  The  ponderous  wheel  moves  round,  and 
no  resistance  is  so  mighty,  but  it  yields ;  no  trans- 
formation so  difficult,  but,  with  the  aid  of  wheels,  pul- 
leys, bevils,  pinions,  cranks,  it  can  be  efl^ected.  The 
machinery,  the  distribution  of  labor,  the  organization, 
the  police. — all  give  evidence,  that  mind  has  been  at 
work  ;  that  it  exercises  perpetual  superintendence  ;.  and 
that  it  is  mind  which  has  derived  its  wonder  Avork- 
ing  power  from  knowledge  alone.  Nowhere  do  we  see 
such  impressive  evidence  of  the  intimate  connexion 
between  science  and  industry,  as  in  the  workshop  and 
the  factory.  All  that  has  been  done,  to  abridge  labor 
and  improve  fabrics,  is  the  obvious  fruit  of  knowledge 
and  reflection.  On  the  one  hand,  science  has  furnish- 
ed principles  for  the  arts  to  apply  :  on  the  other  hand, 


CLIMATE,  SOIL,  PRODUCTIONS,  ETC.  267 

the  arts  have  proposed  problems  for  science  to  re- 
solve ;  and  this  mutual  aid  and  dependence  have  been 
the  means  of  carrying?  both  forward,  at  a  rate  contin- 
ually accelerated.  Thus,  example,  the  most  power- 
ful of  all  teachers,  admonishes  the  workman  of  the 
necessity  of  intellectual  cultivation.  It  makes  him  fa- 
miliar, too,  with  the  idea  of  improvement.  It  suggests 
that  the  career  of  advancement,  instead  of  having  ended, 
has  but  begun  ;  and  that,  if  he  will  but  avail  himself 
of  the  power,  which  knowledge  and  reflection  bestow, 
it  may  be  his  lot  to  contribute  to  a  future,  and  perhaps 
yet  more  brilliant,  progress  of  the  arts.  Such  reflec- 
tions extend  from  the  operative  mechanic  to  the  hus- 
bandman. It  is  the  view  of  what  science  has  done  for 
the  mechanical  and  chemical  arts,  that  has  awakened 
the  desire,  which  now  begins  to  prevail  so  extensively 
among  farmers,  for  more  improved  and  scientific  meth- 
ods of  culture.  It  should  be  considered,  too,  that  agri- 
culture must  be  indebted  to  these  arts  for  improved  im- 
plements and  machines ;  and  that  native  arts,  alone, 
can  furnish  such  as  are  well  adapted  to  our  system  of 
farming. 

III.  We  have  thus  shown  how  the  useful  arts  con- 
tribute to  national  prosperity,  by  giving  more  full  em- 
ployment to  labor,  and  also  by  rendering  that  labor 
more  skilful,  intelligent,  and  therefore  more  produc- 
tive. But,  in  order  to  give  to  labor  the  greatest  pos- 
sible efficiency,  another  condition  must  be  complied 
with, — it  must  avail  itself  of  all  the  advantages  and 
capabilities  which  have  been  bestowed  upon  the  nation 
by  the  Creator.  It  must  adapt  itself  to  the  climate 
and  position  ;  must  put  in  requisition  whatever  natural 
agents  are  at  hand ;  must  substitute  automatic  or  ani- 
mal, for  human,  labor;  must  produce  for  a  near  or  a 
more  distant  market,  according  to  the  expense  of  trans- 
portation, the  extent  of  demand,  &c. 

Now,  when  we  look  at  the  physical  character  of  our 
own  country,  we  cannot  but  be  struck  with  the  great 
variety  of  climate,  soil,  and  industrial  capability,  which 


263      INFLUENCE  OF  THE  USEFUL  ARTS,  ETC. 

exists  uithin  our  extended  borders.  We  have  the  rich 
bottom  lands  of  the  South,  and  the  gi-anite  hills  and 
sterile  plains  of  Xew  England.  We  have,  at  the  North- 
east,, a  soil  and  climate  producing  little  but  timber,  grass, 
and  Indian  corn  ;  in  the  Middle  States,  districts  admira- 
bly fitted  for  wheat,  and  other  grains  ;  and  at  the  South, 
rich  fields  and  sunny  skies,  which  ripen  the  orange,  give 
full  flavor  to  the  sugarcane,  and  yield,  in  almost  bound- 
less profusion,  cotton  and  rice.  Then  we  have  large 
rivers  or  canals,  penetrating  our  territory,  and  opening 
outlets  for  the  productions  of  industry  :  vast  inland  seas, 
navigable  by  the  largest  ships,  and  lined  by  thousands 
of  miles  of  fertile  coasts  ;  so  that  now,  a  barrel  of  flour 
or  pork  can  float,  I  had  almost  said,  from  the  furthest 
point  in  our  Western  interior  ;  or  a  hogshead  of  sugar 
can  be  carried  from  the  extreme  South,  without  a  mile 
of  land-carriage,  and  at  the  most  trifling  expense,  to 
the  remotest  village  of  Maine.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
there  are  vast  portions  of  country  which  are  emphaii- 
cally  sequestered,  having  no  means  of  cheap  and  easy 
transport  to  the  seaboard,  or  to  any  important  market. 
When  we  consider  this  great  diversity  in  the  allotments 
of  life,  the  voice  of  Xature, — may  we  not  rather  say,  of 
Providence, — seems  very  clear.  To  the  farmer  on  the 
banks  of  the  Genesee  or  of  the  Illinois,  it  says,  raise 
wheat ;  to  the  husbandman  on  the  banks  of  the  Merri- 
mac  or  Penobscot,  it  says,  with  equal  clearness,  raise  no 
wheat ;  the  soil  and  climate  are  against  you  :  and  you 
can  sustain  no  competition  with  your  more  favored 
countrymen  of  the  West.  To  the  farmer  in  the  interi- 
or, who  has  no  means  of  easy  access  to  market,  it  says, 
your  soil  may  be  propitious  to  wheat,  but,  if  you  would 
raise  and  sell  it  profitably,  you  must  create  a  market 
for  it,  in  your  own  vicinity.  You  cannot  compete,  on 
any  other  terms,  with  those  who  have  choice  of  the 
best  markets  of  the  Avorld. 

Here,  then,  a  gi'ave  question  presents  itself.  If  the 
inhabitant  of  Xew  England,  of  southern  Xew  York, 
of  the  interior  of  Pennsylvania,  cannot  compete  witli 


CLIMATE,   SOIL,   PRODUCTIONS,  ETC.  i<}G9 

his  fellow-citizens  of  more  favored  districts,  in  raising 
grain,  what  shall  he  do  ?  Shall  he  be  contejit  to  glean 
a  bare  subsistence  from  the  rugged  or  secluded  soil  he 
tills?  or  shall  he  put  out  the  light  of  his  dwelling, 
take  a  last  look  of  the  home  of  his  childhood,  the  grave 
of  his  fathers,  tiie  village  church  and  schoolhouse,  and 
commence  his  line  of  march  towards  the  wilderness? 
To  many  of  these  men,  strangers  as  they  are  to  despair, 
fertile  in  expedients,  accustomed  to  consult  the  intima- 
tions of  Providence,  that  Providence  has  spoken  a  far 
different  language.  It  has  pointed  to  the  bleak  hill, 
covered  with  furze,  as  the  very  place  on  which  to  rear 
and  subsist  the  warm-fleeced  sheep.  It  has  pointed  to 
the  forest,  on  that  hill's  summit,  rich  with  timber  for 
building,  and  to  the  stream  hurrying  around  its  base, 
and  ready  to  perform  the  labor  of  many  human  hands. 
It  bids  them  look  at  the  mineral  wealth,  which  lies 
treasured  in  exhaustlcss  storehouses  beneath  their  feet ; 
to  the  iron,  ready  to  form  itself  into  all  the  implements 
of  industry  and  use ;  to  the  coal,  fitted  to  fuse  that 
iron,  to  clear  away  its  dross  and  foreign  admixtures, 
ami  transmute  it  into  steel ;  to  the  salt,  the  granite, 
the  marble,  the  lead  :  and  it  has  seemed  to  say,  were  all 
these  created  in  vain  ?  Was  it  the  intention  of  the 
Creator,  that  these  should  forever  slumber  in  unexplored 
recesses,  unemployed,  and  useless  to  man  ?  Is  it  well, 
that  we  should  cross  the  ocean,  to  procure  what  can  be 
fabricated  at  our  own  doors  ?  Is  it  right,  that  our  more 
privileged  countrymen,  who  till  nothing  but  willing  and 
prolific  fields,  should  insist  on  raising  grain  for  us,  un- 
less they  are  willing  that  ice  should  labor  for  them,  in 
return,  and  be  compensated  for  our  labor  ?  Is  it  good 
economy,  that  our  wool,  and  cotton,  and  hemp,  should 
be  transported  thousands  of  miles,  in  order  to  be  manu- 
factured for  our  own  use, — being  thus  subjected  to  a 
double  freight,  of  which  the  cost  falls  principally  on  us, 
and  forms  not  less  than  one  sixth  of  their  wliole  value  ? 
Why  was  such  a  vast  territory  given  us,  with  such  a 
variety  of  natural  productions,  and  such  facilities  for 
23* 


270       INFLUENCE  OF  THE  USEFUL  ARTS,  ETC. 

transforming  them  into  articles  of  use  and  luxury,  and 
transporting  them  to  any  required  point,  but  that  wo 
should  carry  on,  within  ourselves,  a  complete  system  of 
industry  and  trade,  distributing  employments  according 
to  local  advantages,  and  multiplying,  between  the  dif- 
ferent and  distant  parts  of  our  confederacy,  the  ties  of 
mutual  interest  and  dependence  ? 

The  force  of  such  considerations  is  materially  en- 
hanced, by  another  and  a  somev/hat  different  one. 
This  country  is  urged  to  foster  and  encourage  the  use- 
ful arts,  not  only  on  account  of  its  many  natural  ca- 
pabilities, and  its  great  distance  from  the  workshops 
of  the  old  world,  but  also  on  account  of  the  peculiar 
benefits  which  would  redound  to  us  from  the  substitu- 
tion of  niachinery  for  human  labor.  It  is  this  substitu- 
tion, doubtless,  wliich  has  tended,  more  than  any,  and 
periiaps  more  than  all  other,  causes,  to  carry  forward 
the  useful  arts,  and  to  increase  the  physical  enjoyments 
of  mankind.  But  it  has  been  made,  to  a  great  extent, 
only  in  mechanical  and  manufacturing  pursuits.  In 
agriculture,  there  has  doubtless  been  considerable  im- 
provement in  the  construction  of  utensils  and  imple- 
ments, .and  in  the  substitution  of  animal  for  human 
povt' ef  ;  but  hardly  any  thing  has  yet  been  done  towards 
superseding  the  labor  of  men  and  animals  by  means  of 
inanimate  forces.  The  consequence  is,  that,  while  in 
husbandry  the  value  of  iiuman  labor  may,  within  a  cen- 
tury, have  been  doubled  or  quadrupled,  it  has  been  in- 
creased in  the  cotton  manufacture  two  hundred  times ; 
so  that  one  v/orkman  now  produces  as  much  cotton 
cloth,  as  two  hundred  did,  in  former  times ;  and  the 
cloth  turned  off  by  two  hundred  and  seventy-two 
thousand  two  hundred  and  ninety-seven  men,  in  the 
cotton  manufactories  of  a  district  in  England,  would 
have  required,  under  the  old  system,  the  labor  of  sixty- 
seven  millions  of  hands ;  that  is,  of  a  population  nearly 
three  times  as  gi-eat  as  that  of  the  whole  kingdom.  It 
must  be  evident,  then,  that  if  these  wonderful  expedi- 
ents for  savins  labor  are  beneficial,  thev  will  benefit 


PRODUCTIVE  EMPLOYMENT.  271 

that  people  the  most,  by  wliom  they  are  most  exten- 
sively adopted  and  used. 

I  have  intimated,  however,  that  to  this  country  the 
substitution  of  machinery  for  imman  labor  would  bring 
peculiar  advantages.  It  would  do  so  for  two  reasons. 
First.  Labor,  in  the  United  States  is  said  to  be  more 
expensive  than  in  older  and  more  populous  countries ; 
and  it  has  been  hence  inferred,  that  we  can  never 
compete  with  them  in  mechanical  industry.  But  in 
proportion  as  we  substitute  machinery  for  men,  we  di- 
minish this  inequality  of  expense,  and  place  ourselves 
on  the  same  footing  with  England  or  France.  Sec- 
ondly. Then,  again,  the  inanimate  forces  which  we 
employ  in  this  country  arc  cheaper  than  those  of  Eng- 
land. Manufacturers,  tlierc,  are  obliged  to  use  steam- 
power,  or  water-power  at  a  very  high  rent ;  whereas, 
in  the  United  States,  water  can  be  commanded  in  al- 
most every  district,  and  at  a  low  rate.  This  fact  was 
assigned  by  Mr.  Kempton,  a  cotton-manufacturer  of 
Pennsylvania,  who  was  examined,  a  (ew  years  since, 
before  a  committee  of  the  British  Parliament,  on  the 
state  of  manufactures  in  America,  as  one  of  the  rea- 
sons why  American  cotton  goods  were  not  only  com- 
peting successfully  with  the  British,  in  some  markets, 
but  actually  gaining  ground  upon  and  even  excluding 
them.*  He  mentioned,  for  example,  that  the  annual 
cost  of  one-horse  power,  in  the  United  States,  would 
be  only  fifteen  dollars  and  a  half;  whereas,  in  England, 
it  would  be  fifty-five  dollars  and  a  half, — or  as  one  to 
three  and  a  half.  No  advantages,  corresponding  with 
these,  could  be  gained  by  tiie  exclusive  pursuit  of  agri- 
culture. 

There  is  another  consideration,  which  seems  strongly 
to  recommend  the  promotion  of  the  useful  arts  in  this 

*  Large  quantities  of  American  cotton  fabrics  are  now  sent  to 
Mexico,  Brazil,  &c.,  on  our  own  continent,  and  to  India,  China. 
Java,  Borneo,  Sumatra,  &c.,  as  well  as  to  the  ^Mediterranean,  on 
the  Eastern  continent.  They  are  considered  to  be  decidedly  supe- 
rior to  British  goods,  of  the  same  denomination,  and  are  afforded  at  a 
cheaper  rate. 


272     INFLUENCE  OF  THE  USEFUL  ARTS,  ETC. 

country.  It  is,  that  by  such  means,  and  by  such  means 
only,  we  can  render  our  industry  independent,  in  a 
greater  degree,  of  the  caprices  of  foreign  legislation 
and  the  vicissitudes  of  European  politics.  Were  our 
whole  population  devoted  to  agricultural  pursuits,  there 
would  be,  of  course,  a  vast  surplus  of  agricultural  pro- 
ducts, to  find  vent  in  foreign  markets.  Now,  nothing 
is  more  uncertain  than  the  condition  in  which  many 
of  these  markets  may  be  found  after  an  interval  of  nine 
or  twelve  months.  Should  the  people  be  engaged  in 
war,  so  that  they  cannot  cultivate  the  earth,  or  procure 
supphes  from  distant  colonies  ;  or  should  their  crops  be 
cut  off  by  drought,  frost,  or  vermin ;  their  ports  are 
thrown  open,  cargoes  of  our  produce  are  disposed  of  at 
high  prices,  and  our  farmers  are  stimulated  to  increased 
outlays  of  capital  and  labor.  Yet  nothing  is  more  like- 
ly than  that,  before  the  next  harvest,  those  very  ports 
will  be  sealed  hermetically,  the  armies  that  we  have 
been  subsisting  be  converted  into  productive  laborers, 
and  our  farmers  left  without  vent  for  their  commodi- 
ties. 

It  is  evident,  that  notiiing  can  be  more  prejudicial 
to  industry,  nothing  better  calculated  to  entail  ruin  on 
individuals,  or  paralyse  generally  the  spirit  of  enter- 
prise, than  these  great  and  sudden  fluctuations.  They 
are  inseparable,  however,  from  a  policy  which  makes  us 
dependent  on  foreign  customers ;  and  they  have  been 
sxperienced  in  this  country  in  a  most  striking  and  dis- 
istrous  degree.  Hardly  had  we  settled  down  under  a 
regular  government,  when  the  disorders  throughout  Eu- 
rope, consequent  upon  the  French  Revolution,  threvv' 
into  our  hands  the  carrying  trade  of  several  nations,  as 
well  as  the  business  of  raising  grain  and  cattle  for  the 
subsistence  of  their  troops.  Our  exports  rose  from 
nineteen  millions,  the  amount  in  1791,  to  sixty-seven 
millions  in  1796  ;  and  reached  the  enormous  amount 
of  one  hundred  and  eight  millions  in  1807.  Then,  the 
French  '  decrees'  and  British  '  orders  in  council'  fell  like 
a  blight  upon  our  industry,  and  our  exports  fell,  in  a  sin- 


PRODUCTIVE  EMPLOYMENT.  273 

gle  year,  from  one  hundred  and  eight  to  twenty-two 
milhons.  By  the  year  1811,  they  had  mounted  up 
again  to  sixty-one  milhons  ;  and  then  came  the  war  of 
1812,  to  let  flill  another  blight.  Then,  again,  in  1817 
and  1818,  the  British  ports  being  open  to  our  flour,  and 
the  exports  of  cotton  being  heavy,  they  rose  to  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty-one  millions,  for  those  two  years ;  and 
in  the  two  next  following,  the  British  ports  being  shut, 
they  fell  to  one  hundred  and  forty  millions  ;  twenty-one 
millions  of  the  diminution  being  in  the  value  of  vegeta- 
ble food  alone. 

For  these  ruinous  fluctuations,  there  would  seem  to  be 
but  one  remedy  ;  and  that  is  a  home-market.  Foreign 
nations  act  upon  the  policy  of  supplying  their  own  neces- 
sities, whenever  they  are  able,  and  will  accept  our  bread- 
stufis,  in  exchange  for  their  manufactures,  only  when 
necessity  compels.  So  long,  then,  as  we  depend  solely 
or  chiefly  on  their  markets,  our  industry  will  be  subject 
to  unnatural  elevations  and  depressions :  our  trade  will 
want  that  most  essential  of  all  the  characteristics  of 
health,  namely,  steadiness.  But  let  one  portion  of  our 
people  invest,  as  they  have  done,  their  capital,  enterprise, 
and  labor,  in  the  useful  arts ;  they  become  consumers, 
on  the  one  hand,  of  grain,  thus  furnishing  tiie  husband- 
man a  market,  and  producers,  on  the  other  hand,  of  the 
manufactures  for  which  he  wishes  to  exchange  that 
grain. 

In  such  a  system  of  exchanges,  there  can  be  little  in- 
terference from  abroad ;  while,  at  home,  it  is  evidently 
the  interest  of  all  parties  to  confine  themselves  to  their 
appropriate  employment,  to  produce  the  greatest  possi- 
ble amount  of  their  proper  commodity,  and  to  obtain 
for  it,  in  the  form  of  useful  or  elegant  articles,  the  great- 
est possible  return.  In  this  way,  the  prosperity  of  one 
part  of  the  country  becomes  the  prosperity  of  every 
other.  Each  has  its  peculiar  capabilities  and  its  pecu- 
liar wants.  If  Maine  wants  the  cottons  of  Alabama, 
the  latter  wants  the  wool  and  woollens  of  Maine. 
Bread  from  Rochester  or  Baltimore,  iron  and  coal  from 


274     INFLUENCE  OF  THE  USEFUL  ARTS,  ETC. 

Philadelphia,  lead  from  St.  Louis,  pork  from  Cincinnati, 
travel  east,  and  return  in  the  shape  of  cotton  and  wool- 
len cloths,  shoes  and  boots,  cut-glass  tumblers,  straw 
hats,  (See.  These,  again,  are  changed  and  interchang- 
ed to  and  fro,  many  times ;  and  thus  do  \vc  secure  a 
vast  home  trade,  resembling  foreign  trade  as  well  in  the 
intervening  distances  as  in  the  nature  of  the  exchanges  ; 
blending  in  one,  in  truth,  the  advantages  of  both,  "  freed 
from  the  jealousies  that  have  frustrated,  and  must  ever 
continue  to  frustrate,  the  benevolent  but  impracticable 
theories  of  commercial  intercourse,  as  between  distinct 
nations  ;  prosecuted  both  along  the  ocean  and  the  high- 
ways of  the  interior,  in  vessels  built  by  our  own  me- 
chanics, navigated  by  our  own  seamen,  subsisted  by  our 
own  farmers,  untrammelled  by  imposts,  and  without  the 
necessity  even  of  a  customhouse,  except  in  form."  I 
shall  have  occasion,  hereafter,  to  advert  to  the  relative 
value  of  this,  as  compared  with  our  foreign,  trade.  I 
speak  of  it,  now,  merely  as  a  resource  against  the  fluc- 
tuations of  the  latter,  and  as  being  peculiarly  calculated 
to  develope,  with  regularity  and  profit,  the  hidden  wealth 
of  the  nation. 

There  is  yet  another  consideration,  which,  to  my 
mind,  pleads  strongly  in  favor  of  the  encouragement  of 
the  useful  arts.  It  is  the  independent  position  which 
such  a  policy  enables  us  to  assume,  with  respect  to  for- 
eign nations.  I  am  by  no  means  insensible  to  the  val- 
ue of  foreign  commerce,  and  of  a  friendly  intercourse 
with  the  various  nations  abroad  ;  nor  do  I  desire  to  see 
them  in  the  least  degree  abridged.  Hardly  a  feature 
of  our  age  is  more  gratifying,  than  the  pacific  policy  and 
the  spirit  of  commercial  activity  which  now  character- 
ize the  intercourse  of  states.  But  how  is  it  that  peace 
is  most  likely  to  be  preserved,  or  trade  regulated  upon 
principles  of  reciprocity  ?  Is  it  by  assuming  an  attitude 
of  commercial  dependence,  so  that,  when  we  come  to 
treat  with  a  foreign  power,  that  power  shall  plainly  dis- 
cover that  we  are  not  in  a  condition  to  prescribe,  but 
only  to  accept,  terms,  and  that  she  will  find  account 


PRODUCTIVE  EMPLOYMENT.  275 

in  playing  the  part  of  dictator?  There  was  never 
wiser  counsel  than  that  of  Washington,  when  he  said, 
that,  if  we  would  preserve  peace,  we  must  show  that 
we  are  prepared  for  the  alternative  of  war.  So  it  may 
be  said,  with  equal  truth,  that,  if  we  would  carry  on 
a  profitable  trade  with  foreign  nations,  we  must  show 
them  that  we  are  prepared  to  do  without  it.  As  inter- 
course is  now  conducted  between  states,  Jio  nation  can 
be  truly  independent,  which  has  not  within  itself  the 
means  of  fabricating  clothing,  and  the  implements  of 
industry  and  defence.  Of  this  we  have  had  most  hu- 
miliating evidence  in  our  own  history.  The  reader 
must  be  aware  of  the  straits  to  which  the  army  that 
fought  the  battles  of  the  Revolution  was  often  reduced, 
for  want  of  ammunition,  clothing,  &c.  When  Gener- 
al Washington  first  took  command  of  the  army  lying  at 
Cambridge,  in  full  view  of  tiie  British  forces,  he  found, 
to  his  amazement,  and  to  the  astonishment  even  of  the 
officers  who  had  been  at  the  station,  that  there  was  not 
powder  enough  in  the  whole  camp  for  nine  cartridges  to 
a  man.  There  were  also  nearly  two  thousand  men  in 
camp  without  firelocks  ;  and,  although  every  expedient 
was  tried  to  procure  them,  it  was  with  little  effect. 
The  New-England  governments  had  none  to  furnish. 
The  militia,  as  their  terms  of  service  expired,  being  re- 
luctant to  part  with  their  arms,  carried  them  away  to 
their  homes  ;  and,  there  being  no  establishments  where 
they  could  be  manufactured.  General  Washington  had 
no  alternative  but  to  sit  down  in  inaction,  bearing  the 
murmurs  of  his  men,  and  the  dissatisfaction  of  the  coun- 
try, in  silence,  lest,  by  assigning  the  true  cause,  he  should 
expose  his  weakness  to  the  enemy,  and  see  the  rising 
hopes  of  his  country  suddenly  blighted.  So  it  was  on 
other  occasions,  especially  during  the  encampment  at 
Valley  Forge.  "  Such  was  the  scarcity  of  blankets," 
says  a  biographer  of  Washington,  "  that  many  of  the 
men  were  obliged  to  sit  up  all  night  before  the  fires, 
being  without  covering  to  j)rotect  them,  while  taking 
the  ordinary  refreshment  of  sleep  ;  and  in  numerous  in- 


276      INFLUENCE  OF  THE  USEFUL  ARTS,  ETC. 

Stances  they  were  so  scantily  clad,  that  they  could  not 
leave  their  huts.'' 

After  such  experience,  it  was  not  surprising  that  the 
genius  of  our  people  for  the  useful  arts,  -which  had  of- 
ten manifested  itself  previous  to  the  Revolution,  but 
had  been  carefully  stifled  by  the  mother  country,  should 
be  again  roused  ;  and  that  many  .efforts  should  have 
been  made  for  the  establishment  of  domestic  industry. 
Whoever  is  familiar  with  the  history  of  the  States,  from 
the  peace  of  1783  to  the  adoption  of  the  present  Con- 
stitution, (1738.)  must  have  observed,  that,  to  obtain 
efficient  protection  for  our  native  shipping  and  infant 
manufactures  was  one  of  the  leading  motives,  espe- 
cially at  the  North,  for  wishing  the  establishment  of  an 
energetic  federal  government.  The  Constitution  was 
no  sooner  ratified,  than  petitions  flowed  in  to  Congress 
from  every  direction, — from  Boston,  from  Baltimore, 
and  from  Charleston, — invoking  the  strong  arm  of  the 
government  to  protect  and  foster  the  industry  of  the 
country. 

These  petitions  were  seconded  by  the  recommen- 
dations of  Washington,  by  the  researches  and  admi- 
rable Report  of  Hamilton,  and  by  the  harmonious  ac- 
tion of  Congi-ess.  It  so  happened.  hov,ever,  that  the 
neutral  position  which,  through  the  wise  policy  of 
Washington,  was  taken  by  the  new  government,  in  re- 
gard to  the  wars  growing  out  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, served  to  make  us,  for  the  time,  the  carriers  and 
producers  of  food  for  foreigners,  thus  absorbing  our  in- 
dustrv  in  agTiculture  and  commerce.  But  the  ■  French 
decrees'  and  •'  British  orders'  fell  on  these  interests  like 
an  avalanche,  (as  we  have  seen,)  in  1807  ;  and  their 
effect  had  hardly  subsided,  before  the  war  of  1812  came, 
and  surprised  us  without  any  adequate  means  of  sup- 
plying our  own  wants.  So  depressed,  for  instance,  was 
the  woollen  manufacture,  at  that  period,  and  so  depen- 
dent, consequently,  was  our  condition,  that  the  Secre- 
tary of  War  was  obliged  to  prefer  a  request  to  Con- 
gress, that  existing  laws  might  be  so  far  repealed,  as  to 


PRODUCTIVE  EMPLOYMENT.  277 

allow  the  importation  of  six  thousand  blankets  for  the 
Indian  Department,  wliich  was  supposed,  however,  to 
mean,  that  our  own  soldiers  could  not  be  preserved  from 
the  inclemency  of  the  season,  even  while  fighting  the 
British,  unless  they  could  procure  blankets  from  British 
looms.  This  request  was  not  granted ;  and  the  fearful 
privations  endured  by  our  troops,  for  the  want  of  proper 
clothing,  is  too  fresh  in  the  memory  of  the  present  gen- 
eration, to  require  more  than  a  passing  reference. 

It  was  natural,  that,  during  this  war,  while  cut  off 
from  intercourse  with  Europe,  our  arts  and  manufac- 
tures should  rapidly  extend.  The  continuance  of  it, 
however,  was  short ;  and,  at  its  close,  we  witnessed,  in 
the  deluge  of  foreign,  and  especially  of  British  goods, 
which  poured  in  upon  us,  one  of  those  systematic  at- 
tempts to  cripple  our  manufactories,  which  must  fre- 
quently occur  while  our  policy,  in  regard  to  them,  is 
unsettled.  "  It  was  well  worth  vviiile,"  said  Mr.  Brough- 
am, during  a  debate  in  the  British  Parliament,  when 
speaking  of  the  losses  incurred  by  the  British  exporters 
in  these  goods  ;  '•'  it  was  well  worth  while  to  incur  a  loss 
upon  the  first  exportation,  in  order,  by  the  glut,  to  sti- 
fle in  the  cradle  those  rising  manufactures  in  the  Unit- 
ed States,  which  the  war  had  forced  into  existence, 
contrary  to  the  natural  course  of  things ;"  meaning,  I 
suppose,  by  the  "  natural  course  of  things,"  that  course 
which  would  best  promote  the  interests  of  the  British 
nation. 

It  would  be  easy  to  multiply  these  instances,  in 
which  the  want  of  a  more  stable  system  of  domestic 
industry  has  placed  us  at  the  mercy  of  foreign  legisla- 
tion, or  foreign  traders.  Such,  for  example,  was  the 
immense  importation  of  East-India  cotton  into  Great 
Britain,  in  1813,  in  order  to  prostrate  the  price  of  the 
American  product ;  and  when,  owing  to  this  measure, 
cotton  suddenly  fell  seven  and  a  half  cents  on  the 
pound,  and  declined,  in  a  little  more  than  two  years, 
from  thirty-two  to  sixteen  cents,  and  in  the  three  sub- 
sequent years  ranged  still  lower.     Such  was  the  act  of 

24  S.   A. 


278  I>TLUEXCE   OF  THE  USEFt'L  AKTS,  ETC. 

Parliament,  in  1S24,  reducing  the  duty  on  imported 
wool  from  sixpence  sterling  to  one  penny  a  pound,  and 
afterwards  to  a  half-penny,  for  tiie  declared  purpose,  as 
the  debates  in  Parliament  show,  of  enabling  the  British 
manufacturer  to  undersell,  in  our  own  market,  the  na- 
tive fabrics  which  were  then  springing  up.  And  such, 
to  add  no  other  examples,  is  the  wellknown  practice  of 
many  British  proprietors,  at  this  time,  in  consequence  of 
the  advantage  of  operating  on  a  large  scale,  of  manufac- 
turing beyond  the  amount  of  orders  they  have  received, 
and  to  export  the  surplus  at  a  price  which  keeps  down 
foreign  competition.  ••  The  profits,"'  says  Dr.  Ure, 
when  speaking,  in  his  '  Philosophy  of  Manufactures,'  of 
this  practice  ;  '•'  the  profits  on  the  greater  proportion  in- 
demnify them  for  the  losses  on  the  smaller."  Is  it  not 
to  be  apprehended,  that  we  shall  soon  witness  another 
appalling  display  of  the  effects  of  this  policy  on  our 
woollen  manufactures  ?  When,  in  1842,  the  discrim- 
inating duties  shall  cease,  and  foreign  woollens  be  re- 
ceived, subject  to  so  slight  impost,  is  it  not  likely  that 
we  shall  see  another  attempt,  by  glutting  our  markets, 
to  stifle  those  rising  manufactures,  in  which  such  im- 
mense amounts  of  industry,  capital,  and  skill,  have 
been  embarked,  by  the  encouragement  held  out,  too, 
from  our  own  government  r* 

Such,  then,  are  some  of  the  reasons  which  seem  to 
dictate  to  nations,  and  especially  to  a  nation  situated 
like  ours,  the  policy  of  cultivating  the  useful  arts.  I 
need  not  repeat,  I  trust,  that  they  are  not  presented  as 
arguments  for  such  an  undue  or  exclusive  encourage- 
ment, as  would  be  likely  to  prejudice,  if  such  a  thing 
be  possible,  the  interests  of  commerce  and  agriculture. 
•■For  myself."'  to  borrow  the  words  of  General  Wash- 
ington, in  his  letter,  in  1789,  to  the  'Delaware  Society 
for  promoting   Domestic  Manufactures,'   "  having   an 

*  It  is  proper  to  mention,  here,  that  different  views,  from  those 
adopted  in  this  Chapter,  are  held  by  many  persons  ;  and  we  advise 
our  readers  to  examine  both  sides  of  this  important  question,  for 
themselves. 


PRODUCTIVE  EMPLOYMENT.  279 

equal  regard  for  the  prosperity  of  the  farming,  trading, 
and  manufacturing,  interests,  I  cannot  conceive  that  the 
extension  of  the  latter  (so  far  as  it  may  afford  employ- 
ment to  a  great  number  of  hands,  which  would  be  oth- 
erwise, in  a  manner,  idle)  can  be  detrimental  to  the 
farmer.  On  the  contrary,  the  concurrence  of  virtuous 
individuals,  and  the  combinations  of  economical  socie- 
ties, to  rely  as  much  as  possible  on  the  resources  of 
our  own  countrv,  may  be  productive  of  great  national 
advantages,  by  establishing  the  habits  of  industry  and 
economy.  The  objects  of  your  institution  are  therefore 
highly  commendable,  and  you  will  permit  me  to  add, 
gentlemen,  that  I  propose  to  demonstrate  the  sincerity 
of  my  opinion  on  this  subject,  by  the  uniformity  of  my 
practice  in  giving  a  decided  preference  to  the  produce 
and  fabrics  of  America,  whensoever  it  may  be  done 
without  involving  an  unreasonable  expense,  or  very 
great  inconvenience.''  In  pursuance  of  this  determi- 
nation, when  he  appeared  before  Congress,  in  1790,  to 
deliver  his  speech,  at  the  opening  of  the  session,  he  was 
arrayed  in  a  complete  suit  of  American  broadcloth,  from 
the  woollen  manufactory  established  a  short  time  pre- 
vious, under  the  patronage  of  Colonel  Jeremiah  Wads- 
worth,  at  Hartford,  in  Connecticut,  and  which  is  believ- 
ed to  have  been  the  first  establishment  of  the  kind  in 
America. 

In  regard  to  the  influence  of  the  Useful  Arts  on  A^a- 
tional  Prosperity,  history  speaks  but  one  language.  If 
we  trace  the  progress  of  modern  civilization,  from  its 
cradle,  in  the  south  of  Europe,  to  its  home,  in  the  Isl- 
and of  Great  Britain,  or  in  the  United  States,  we  shall 
find  that  the  state  of  the  useful  arts,  at  any  period,  and 
in  almost  any  country,  will  form  a  true  index  to  its 
general  condition.  It  was  these  arts,  borrowed  through 
the  Crusades  from  the  East,  or  reanimated,  after  a  long 
slumber,  at  home,  that  built  up  ihe  free  cities,  and  sent 
forth  from  them  an  awakening  influence  on  all  classes, 
creating  new  and  higher  tastes,  even  among  the  boors 
of  the  hamlet,  and  inciting  them  to  corresponding  ef- 


S30      IXTLUEXCE  OF  THE  USEFUL  ARTS.  ETC. 

forts,  in  order  to  gratify  them.  It  was  by  transplanting 
these  arts  from  Italy  to  Flanders,  that  the  Earl  of  the 
latter  country  first  gave  it  an  upward  impulse,  and  laid 
the  foundation  for  the  supremacy  which  it  so  long  en- 
joyed in  industry  and  wealth,  and  in  the  freedom  of 
its  middle  and  working  classes.  And  when  England, 
pausing  in  the  midst  of  her  foreign  wars,  set  herself  to 
develope  her  native  resources,  and  commenced  that 
career,  in  which  she  has  ascended  from  one  to  another 
height  of  power,  and  wealth,  and  civilization,  what  was 
the  grand,  the  distinguishing,  characteristic  of  her  poli- 
cy ?  You  will  find  the  germ  of  it,  if  I  mistake  not,  as 
far  back  as  the  years  1336  and  1337.  when  '•  Edward 
the  Third,  in  the  midst  of  his  efforts  to  subdue  Scot- 
land, and  preparations  for  subduing  France,  icas  not 
inattentive.''  to  use  the  language  of  McPherson,  in  his 
•  Annals  of  Commerce,'  •'•'  to  the  more  rational  project 
of  establishing  the  woollen  manufactures  in  his  do- 
minions,'' and  •'•'  foreign  clothmakers,  to  induce  them 
to  move,  were  promised  the  King's  protection,  to  live 
in  any  part  of  his  dominions,  together  with  franchises 
(as  the  act  of  Parliament  runs)  to  their  full  satisfac- 
tion.'' 

Then  commenced  the  policy,  which  has  ever  since 
characterized  England ;  the  policy  of  awakening  the 
dormant  energies  of  her  people,  and  turning  to  account 
all  the  resources  of  her  territory,  and  all  the  discoveries 
of  science ;  the  policy  of  planting  within  her  borders 
all  the  arts  that  are,  by  way  of  eminence,  useful ;  that 
enrich,  strengthen,  gladden  ;  the  policy  of  giving  em- 
ployment, and  the  most  productive  employment,  to 
a  whole  population,  old  and  young,  male  and  female ; 
of  enlisting  in  their  aid  the  powers  of  Xature,  and  the 
inventions  of  genius ;  in  one  word,  of  rearing  manufac- 
tures to  stimulate  agriculture  and  quicken  commerce. 
And  to  what  point  has  she  arisen,  under  the  auspices 
of  this  policy,  aided,  doubtless,  by  other  causes.  -  Sir,"' 
says  one  of  our  countrvmen,  a  southern  statesman, 
speaking  on  this  subject,  •'•'  I  have  weighed  every  sylla- 


PRODUCTIVE  EMPLOYMENT.  281 

ble  that  I  utter ;  I  express  a  deliberate  conviction, 
founded  upon  a  patient  inquiry,  and  a  comparison  as 
complete  as  my  limited  knowledge  has  enabled  me  to 
make  it,  between  the  past  and  present  condition  of 
mankind,  and  between  tiie  great  nation  of  which  I  am 
speaking,  and  those  that  surround  her.  Sir,  there  is  a 
gulf  between  them ;  that  narrow  channel  separates 
worlds :  it  is  an  ocean  more  than  three  thousand  miles 
wide. 

"  I  appeal  to  any  one  Nvho  has  been  abroad,  wheth 
er  going  from  England  to  any  part  of  the  Continent 
be  not  descending  immensely  in  the  scale  of  civiliza- 
tion. I  know,  sir,  that  that  word  is  an  ambiguous 
one  ;  I  know,  that  in  some  of  the  graces  of  polished 
society,  in  some  of  the  arts  of  an  elegant  imagination ; 
that  in  the  exact  sciences,  and  in  mere  learning  and 
general  intellectual  cultivation,  some  nations  have  ex- 
celled, perhaps  many  equalled,  England.  But  in  that 
civilization  which  it  is  the  grand  end  of  modern  politi- 
cal economy  to  promote,  which  at  once  springs  out  of, 
and  leads  to,  the  accumulation  of  capital,  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  wealth  and  comfort  among  all  classes  of 
the  community,  with  an  immense  aggi^egate  of  national 
power  and  resources, — in  such  a  civilization,  there  is 
nothing  recorded  in  the  annals  of  mankind,  that  does 
not  sink  into  the  shades  of  the  deepest  eclipse,  by  the 
side  of  England. 

'■  I  say  rwthing  of  her  recent  achievements  on  the 
land  and  the  sea ;  of  her  fleets,  her  armies,  her  subsi- 
dized allies.  Look  at  the  Thames^  crowded  with  ship- 
ping ;  visit  her  arsenals,  her  docks,  her  canals,  her  rail- 
ways, her  factories,  her  mines,  her  warehouses,  her 
roads,  and  bridges.  Go  through  the  streets  of  that 
wonderful  metropolis, — the  bank,  the  emporium,  and 
the  exchange,  of  the  wliolc  world  ;  converse  with  those 
^ncrchants  who  conduct  and  control,  as  far  as  it  is  pos- 
sible to  control,  the  commerce  of  all  nations  ;  with  those 
manufacturers  who  fill  every  market  with  their  unriv- 
alled products  :  go  into  that  bank,  where  is  the  repos- 
24* 


282      INFLUENCE  OF  THE  USEFUL  AKTS,  ETC. 

itory  of  the  precious  metals  for  all  Europe  ;  consider  its 
notes,  as  well  as  the  bills  of  private  bankers,  at  a  pre- 
mium every  where,  more  valuable  than  specie,  symbols 
not  merely  of  gold  but  of  what  is  far  more  precious 
ihan  gold,  yea,  than  fine  gold,  of  perfect  good  faith,  of 
flnblemished  integrity,  of  sagacious  enterprise,  of  steady, 
persevering  industry,  of  boundless  wealth,  of  business  co- 
extensive with  the  earth,  and  of  all  these  things  possess- 
ed, exercised,  enjoyed,  protected,  under  a  system  of  lib- 
erty chastened  by  the  law  which  maintains  it,  and  of 
law  softened  and  mitigated  by  the  spirit  of  liberty  which 
it  breathes  throughout. 

"  Sir,"  continues  the  eloquent  gentleman  from  whom 
I  quote,  '•'  I  know,  as  well  as  any  one,  what  compensa- 
tions there  are  for  all  this  opulence  and  power ;  (for  it 
is  the  condition  of  our  being,  that  we  buy  our  blessings 
at  a  price  ;)  I  know  that  there  are  disturbing  causes, 
which  have  hitherto  marred,  in  some  degree,  the  effect 
of  this  high  and  mighty  civilization  ;  but  the  hand  of 
reform  has  been  already  applied  to  them,  and  every 
thing  promises  the  most  auspicious  results.  I  have  it 
on  the  most  unquestionable  authority,  because  from  an 
unwilling  witness,  that,  within  the  memory  of  man, 
never  were  the  laboring  classes  of  England  so  univer- 
sally employed,  or  so  comfortably  situated,  as  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  present  year."* 

In  view  of  this  brilliant,  but,  as  I  believe,  not  over- 
charged picture  of  England's  power  and  wealth,  I 
could  hardly  help  whispering,  if  I  had  access  to  the 
author's  ear,  that  she  has  not  reached  so  proud  a  pre- 
eminence by  an  exclusive  devotion  to  agriculture,  the 
favorite  policy  of  the  gentleman's  own  State  ;  and  that, 
while  she  has  been  coining  her  millions  out  of  the 
manufacture  of  cotton,  South  Carolina  has  hardly  com- 
passed equal  profits,  though  doubtless  great  ones,  by 
raising  it. 

It  would  be  easy  to  multiply  these  historical  proofs, 

*  Speech  of  lion.  H.  S.  Legare,  in  Congress,  1S37. 


PRODUCTIVE  EMPLOYMENT.  283 

by  a  reference  to  other  countries,  and  even  to  our  own, 
where  the  tide  of  prosperity  never  rolled  on  in  such 
majestic  waves,  as  during  those  periods  (especially  the 
last  twelve  or  fifteen  years)  when  the  useful  arts  were 
most  cultivated.  But  I  must  hasten  to  other  views 
of  the  subject,  and  especially  to  some  notice  of  the  ob- 
jections which  are  commonly  preferred  against  any 
special  effort  to  encourage  these  arts  in  the  United 
States. 

1.  It  is  objected,  in  the  first  place,  that  it  infringes 
on  one  great  principle  of  productive  industry,  namely, 
in  the  division  of  labor.  '•  No  one,"  says  Mr.  M'Cul- 
loch,  "  thinks  of  performing  every  thing  for  himself, 
nor  of  making  at  home  what  it  would  cost  him  more 
to  make  than  to  buy.  The  tailor,  as  Dr.  Smith  has 
remarked,  does  not  attempt  to  make  his  own  shoes, 
but  buys  them  of  a  shoemaker ;  the  shoemaker,  on  his 
part,  does  not  attempt  to  make  his  own  clothes,  but 
employs  a  tailor  ;  and  the  farmer  makes  neither  the  one 
nor  the  other,  but  obtains  them  in  exchange  for  his 
corn  and  his  cattle.  Each  individual  finds  it  for  his 
advantage  to  employ  himself  in  some  particular  busi- 
ness, and  to  exchange  a  part  of  his  peculiar  produce, 
for  such  parts  of  the  produce  of  others,  as  he  may  have 
occasion  for.  And  it  is  not  very  easy,"  he  adds,  "  to  see 
how  that  conduct,  which  is  universally  admitted  to  be 
wise  and  proper  in  individuals,  should  be  foolish  and 
absurd  in  the  case  of  a  state  ;  that  is,  of  the  total  num- 
bers of  individuals  inhabiting  a  particular  tract  of  coun- 
try." 

Applying  tiiis  principle  to  this  country,  it  is  thought 
to  be  unwise  for  a  people,  having  such  vast  tracts 
of  fertile  and  unoccupied  territory,  to  divert  from 
its  tillage  any  portion  of  their  industry,  in  order  to 
fabricate  articles  which  can  as  well  be  procured  from 
abroad,  and  for  manufacturing  wiiich,  other  nations 
have  superior  facilities.  To  this  argument  there  would 
not  be  so  obvious  a  reply,  provided  these  otiier  nations 
would  consent  to  receive  our  agricultural  products,  in 


284     IXFLUEKCE  OF  THE  USEFUL  ARTS,  ETC. 

exchange  for  their  manufactures ;  or,  in  other  words, 
if  there  were  between  nations,  as  there  is  between  in- 
dividuals of  the  sanie  nation,  perfect  freedom  of  trade. 
But  this  is  far  from  being  the  case.  While  England 
wishes  us  to  buy  her  cloths  and  hardware,  she  positive- 
ly refuses,  most  of  the  time,  to  take,  in  exchange,  our 
corn,  cattle,  or  lumber.  '■'  In  such  a  position  of  things," 
said  Hamilton,  fifty  years  ago,  and  the  remark  has  lost 
none  of  its  force  since ;  '-'in  such  a  position  of  things, 
the  United  States  cannot  exchange  with  Europe  on 
equal  terms  :  and  the  want  of  reciprocity  would  make 
them  the  victims  of  a  system  which  should  induce  them 
to  confine  their  views  to  agriculture,  and  refrain  from 
manufactures.  A  constant  and  increasing  necessity,  on 
their  part,  for  the  commodities  of  Europe,  and  only  a 
partial  and  occasional  demand  for  their  own,  in  return, 
could  not  but  expose  them  to  a  state  of  impoverishment, 
compared  with  the  opulence  to  which  their  political 
and  natural  advantages  authorize  them  to  aspire."  If 
the  shoemaker  should  tell  the  farmer  that  he  could  no 
longer  take  his  cattle  and  his  corn  for  shoes ;  or  could 
only  take  them  occasionally,  when  he  was  unable  to 
produce  sufficient  for  himself,  the  farmer  must  necessa- 
rily reply,  then,  sir,  I  can  no  longer  take  your  shoes. 
I  must  look  out  for  some  other  individual,  who  will 
take  the  only  articles  of  produce  I  have  to  give,  or  I 
must  turn  shoemaker  myself.  While  Great  Britain 
refuses  to  take  in  exchange  for  her  goods  the  produce 
of  the  labor  of  two  thirds  of  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  latter  can  obtain  equivalents  for  that 
produce  in  no  other  part  of  the  world,  it  ill  becomes 
her  to  complain  that  these  two  thirds  should  attempt  to 
manufacture  for  themselves. 

2.  But  it  is  said,  aguin,  that  industry,  if  left  to  itself, 
vv'ill  naturally  find  its  own  way  to  the  most  useful  and 
profitable  employment ;  and  that  to  attempt,  therefore, 
to  hasten  its  movements,  by  special  efl^orts,  or  by  the 
agency  of  government,  is  to  do  violence  to  the  interests 
of  the  countrv.     Those  who  advance  this  ararument 


PRODUCTIVE  EMPLOYMENT.  285 

can  hardly  have  apjireciated  the  "  strong  influence  of 
habit,  and  the  spirit  of  imitation,  whicii  affects  com- 
munities no  less  tiian  individuals ;  the  fear  of  want  of 
success  in  untried  enterprises  ;  the  intrinsic  difficulties, 
incident  to  first  essays  towards  competition  with  those 
who  iiave  previously  attained  to  perfection  in  the  busi- 
ness to  be  attempted  ;  the  combinations  by  those  en- 
gaged in  a  particular  branch  of  business,  in  one  country, 
to  frustrate,  by  temporary  sacrifices,  the  first  efibrts  to 
introduce  it  into  another ;  the  bounties,  premiums,  and 
other  artificial  encouragements,  with  which  foreign  na- 
tions second  tiie  exertions  of  their  own  citizens,  in  the 
branches  in  which  they  are  to  be  rivalled."  Tiic  force 
of  habit  and  education  is  such,  even  in  our  bustling 
country,  that  there  lives  in  my  neighborhood  a  gentle- 
man of  wealth  and  intelligence,  but  who  belongs,  in 
years,  almost  to  another  age,  who  questions  altogether 
the  utility  of  steam-boats,  and  who  has  never  yet  been 
persuaded  to  put  his  foot  on  board  of  one :  and  I  have 
heard  of  an  old  planter,  who  died  not  many  years 
since,  in  Maryland,  who,  having  been  educated  when 
there  were  few  or  no  manufactories  in  America,  con- 
tinued, to  the  very  last,  to  ship  his  tobacco  to  a  factor 
in  England,  as  before  the  Revolution,  and  to  receive 
thence  supplies  of  the  most  trifling  articles  for  his  fam- 
ily use,  such  as  tea,  sugar,  coffee,  pepper,  mustard,  and 
all  farming  utensils,  and  articles  of  clothing,  packed 
up  and  forwarded  as  they  had  been  at  the  period  of 
the  first  settlements  in  the  State.  The  other  consider- 
ations which  have  been  suggested  admit  of  similar  illus- 
tration. 

3.  It  has  been  objected,  again,  that  manufactures 
can  be  built  up,  in  a  country  like  ours,  only  at  the 
expense  of  commerce  and  agriculture.  This  opinion 
is  the  result  of  an  old  prejudice,  by  which  these  three 
great  branches  of  industry  arc  regarded  as  rival  and 
even  hostile  interests, — a  prejudice  which  the  uniform 
experience  of  civilized  nations  ought,  before  this  day, 
to  have  corrected.     If  we  look  over  the  world,  we  shall 


286      IXFLUENCE  OF  THE  USEFUL  ARTS,  ETC. 

find  tJiat  the  most  active  and  lucrative  commerce,  and 
the  most  improved  and  productive  systems  of  tillage, 
have  prevailed  in  the  very  countries  which  have  been 
most  distinguished  for  their  arts  and  manufactures. 
Look  at  Lombardy  and  Flanders,  of  former  times. 
Look  at  England  and  Scotland,  at  this  moment.  Look 
even  at  this  Country,  and  tell  me,  in  Miiat  parts  of  it 
there  is  the  busiest  commerce,  the  most  active  and  in- 
telligent culture  of  the  soil.  To  build  up  commerce, 
you  must  furnish  it  with  commodities  to  exchange ;  and 
the  greater  their  variety,  as  well  as  their  abundance, 
the  more  active  the  exchanges  you  will  set  in  motion. 
To  stimulate,  to  the  utmost,  the  energies  of  the  hus- 
bandman, you  must,  on  the  one  hand,  furnish  him  with 
a  ready  market  for  his  products,  and,  on  the  other, 
kindle  in  his  mind  new  desires  for  the  conveniences 
and  luxuries  of  life.  All  this  has  been  done  by  the 
useful  arts,  in  other  countries,  and  is  nov,-  in  the  way 
of  being  done  here.  Even  should  foreign  trade  be 
somewhat  contracted,  it  would  only  be  the  result  of 
substituting  for  it  a  more  extensive  and  profitable  trade 
at  home.  The  operations  of  this  trade,  being  less  im- 
posing than  those  which  belong  to  commerce  with  dis- 
tant countries,  and  no  full  or  accurate  survey  being 
annually  taken  of  them  by  the  authority  of  government, 
vvc  are  but  little  aware  of  their  vast  and  paramount  im- 
portance. The  products  of  our  domestic  manufactures 
amount  annually  to  little  less  than  four  hundred  millions 
of  dollars, — while  all  our  imports  from  abroad  are  es- 
timated at  less  than  a  quarter  of  that  sum  ;  and  the 
imports  of  such  articles  as  we  can  make  in  the  United 
States  at  much  less.  Now,  the  domestic  exchanges, 
or  commerce,  to  which  these  four  hundred  millions  of 
dollars  worth  of  manufactures  gives  rise,  the  demand 
which  it  creates  for  the  products  of  agriculture,  the  em- 
ployment which  is  thus  afforded  for  our  coasting  ves 
sels,  our  canals,  and  steam-boats,  constitute,  together, 
an  amount  of  industry,  compared  with  which  our  whole 
foreign  trade,  and  that  portion  of  our  agriculture  en- 


PRODUCTIVE  EMPLOYMENT.  287 

gaged  in  producing  for  exportation,  forms  but  an  incon- 
siderable item. 

And  yet  let  it  not  be  supposed  that  tiiese  advantages, 
exempt  as  they  are  from  the  fluctuations  inseparable 
from  foreign  trade,  and  investing  us  with  a  real  as  well 
as  a  nominal  independence,  have  abridged  essentially  our 
intercourse  with  foreign  nations.  The  truth  is,  they  have 
not  abridged  it  at  all.  Our  imports,  as  the  Reports 
of  the  Treasury  Department  show,  have  never  been 
so  great,  on  an  average,  as  during  the  last  fifteen  years, 
when  our  domestic  arts  have  been  most  thriving.  And 
this  increase  is  the  eftcct,  not  merely  of  an  increasing 
population,  but  also,  and  in  good  part,  of  the  addition 
which  those  arts  have  made  to  our  wealth.  Without 
these  arts,  what  ability  would  New  England,  for  in- 
stance, have,  to  buy,  not  merely  the  flour  of  Rochester, 
and  the  pork  of  Cincinnati,  and  tiie  cotton  of  Alabama, 
(let  not  the  Alabamian  despise  his  Eastern  customer, 
for  that  customer  adds  not  less  than  ten  per  cent,  to  the 
value  of  his  staple,)  not  merely  to  buy  these,  but  what 
ability  would  she  have  to  purchase  the  silks  of  France, 
and  the  cutlery  of  England,  and  the  teas  of  China? 
It  is  a  fact,  that  two  thirds  of  our  whole  population, — 
those  inhabiting  the  Eastern,  Middle,  and  Western, 
States  north  of  the  Ohio, — have  almost  no  foreign  mar- 
ket for  the  products  of  their  agricultural  labor.  Of  the 
annual  exports  of  the  United  States,  more  than  three 
fourths  are  furnished  from  the  plantation  States,  and 
consist  of  cotton,  rice,  and  tobacco.  In  what  way, 
then,  could  the  other  and  much  more  numerous  por- 
tions of  our  people  provide  themselves  with  foreign 
conveniences,  and  luxuries,  but  by  first  fabricating  ar- 
ticles, or  raising  products,  which  can  be  sold  at  home, 
and  with  the  proceeds  of  which  they  can  present  them- 
selves as  buyers  in  the  furthest  marts  of  Europe  and 
of  Asia  ? 

And  this  system  not  only  gives  the  means,  it  also 
enlarges,  in  the  same  proportion,  the  desire  of  pur- 
chasing ;  enlarges  the  circle  of  our  tastes,  and,  in  place 


'■2S8  INFLUENCE   OF  THE  USEFUL  ARTS,  ETC. 

of  one  foreign  commodity,  superseded  by  a  correspoii 
ding  one  of  domestic  manufacture,  it  probably  intro- 
duces two  others,  that  are  new.  Th.is  is  a  topic  preg- 
nant with  interest  and  instruction ;  and  it  demands 
a  much  ampler  discussion,  than  can  be  afforded  to  it 
here.  Whoever  has  had  e)ccasion  to  visit  one  Qf  oui 
manufacturing  towns,  and  to  observe  its  vicinity,  must 
have  seen  beautiful  exemplifications  of  the  truth  to 
which  I  have  adverted.  He  will  have  seen  how  indus- 
try is  quickened  by  the  presence  of  gainful  employment, 
as  well  as  how  it  is  aided  and  lightened  by  the  discov- 
eries of  science.  He  will  have  seen  the  products  of  the 
neighboring  husbandry  increased  fourfold,  and  not  un- 
frequently  tenfold.  He  will  have  seen  an  air  of  thrift, 
and  even  elegance,  thrown  over  the  whole  population, 
exhibited  in  their  habitations,  dress,  and  manners, 
wiiich  betokens  improved  taste,  as  well  as  enlarged 
means. 

I  was  very  forcibly  struck  with  all  this,  not  long 
since,  in  visiting  a  town  some  forty  or  fifty  miles  west- 
ward from  Albany.  The  situation  is  truly  sequester- 
ed, being  several  miles  from  any  great  route  of  travel  or 
transport,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  sandy  and  sterile  soil. 
A  few  years  ago,  however,  the  attention  of  the  inhabi- 
tants was  directed  to  the  dressing  of  skins,  and  the 
manufacture  of  gloves.  This  business  gives  employ- 
ment not  only  to  the  male  adults,  \yho  could  be  spared 
from  farming,  but  also  to  the  females  and  children  ;  and, 
with  the  added  blessings  of  temperance,  education,  and 
general  morality,  has  been  the  means  of  making  one 
of  the  most  opulent,  respectable,  and  happy  neighbor- 
hoods, which  it  has  been  my  fortune  to  witness.  As  I 
rode  through  the  town,  now  rapidly  increasing  in  pop- 
ulation and  wealth,  every  house  and  cottage  prettily 
painted  and  furnished,  a  fine  new  church  erecting, 
which  would  be  no  dishonor  to  our  cities,  a  large  acad- 
emy, offering  to  all  the  inhabitants  the  means  of  a 
thorough  though  cheap  education,  the  people  all  occu- 
pied, and  all  rejoicing  in  the  consciousness  of  present 


PRODUCTIVE   EMPLOYMENT.  289^ 

prosperity,  and  in  the  hope  of  a  bright  and  happy  fu- 
ture, I  could  not  but  think  what  would  have  been  the 
amount  of  trade,  what  the  state  of  tillage,  and  what, 
above  all,  the  condition  of  the  people,  had  they  confined 
themselves,  after  the  example  of  some  of  their  neigh- 
bors, exclusively  to  agriculture. 

4.  My  limits  will  permit  me  to  notice  but  one  other 
objection.  It  is,  that  the  cultivation  of  the  arts,  espec- 
ially the  establishment  of  large  manufactories,  tends  to 
demoralize  and  degrade  a  population  ;  that,  if  they  add 
to  a  nation's  wcaltli,  it  is  at  the  expense  of  that  which 
is  unspeakably  more  important, — their  virtue.  Having 
given  some  attention  to  this  subject,  I  should  gladly 
spread  the  results  before  the  reader,  at  greater  length 
than  my  space  will  allow.  I  do  not  doubt  that  the 
factory  operatives  of  England  have  been,  to  a  fear- 
ful extent,  depraved  and  ignorant ;  but  I  believe  the 
same  remark  applies  with  equal,  if  not  greater,  truth,  to 
her  peasantry.  The  debased  condition  of  the  latter,  it 
is  true,  is  less  obvious  ;  because  they  are  scattered  over 
the  country,  and  are  rarely  visited  by  the  tourist,  while 
he  beholds  the  corruption  of  the  manufacturing  class- 
es collected  into  conspicuous  focal  points.  But  Col- 
quhoun,  one  of  the  most  accurate  statistical  writers  of 
Great  Britain,  who  had  no  partiality  for  manufacturing 
industry,  has  ascertained,  that,  as  a  class,  operative  me- 
chanics, and  especially  manufacturers,  are  more  orderly 
and  better  provided  for,  than  the  agricultural  class  ;  the 
criminal  offences  charged  being  as  forty  to  one  hun- 
dred, and  the  number  of  paupers  as  one  to  two,  in  favor 
of  the  manufacturing  districts. 

The  same  opinion  is  expressed,  in  an  emphatic  man- 
ner, and  substantiated  by  a  great  variety  of  facts,  in 
Dr.  lire's  late  work  on  the  Philosophy  of  Manufactures, 
which  was  written  immediately  after  an  extended  and 
careful  inspection  of  the  factory  districts,  botii  of  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  The  truth  is,  the  fearful  amount 
of  vice  and  suffering,  among  all  the  lower  orders  of 
England,  is  to  be  attributed  to  causes  very  different  from 
25  s.  A. 


290     INFLUENCE  OF  THE  USEFLL  ARTS,  ETC. 

the  one  here  assigned ;  and  might  rather  be  said  to 
exist  in  spite  of  manufactures,  than  on  account  of 
them.  In  the  mean  time,  the  jealousy  which  has  un- 
happily subsisted  between  the  landed  and  trading  in- 
terests has  instigated  one  party  to  seize  upon  this  too 
palpable  and  melancholy  fact,  and  to  construe  it  to  suit 
their  own  convenience.  But  whoever  would  determine 
the  proper  and  legitimate  influence  of  these  arts,  and 
especially  as  prosecuted  by  the  modern  system  of  fac- 
tory labor,  should  visit  the  Manchester  of  our  own  Coun- 
try,— Lowell,  He  will  there  find,  if  I  am  not  deceived, 
a  practical  and  conclusive  refutation  of  the  objection 
before  us. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  important  questions 
connected  witii  this  subject,  and  one  which  I  intended 
to  have  discussed  at  some  length,  must  be  omitted  in 
this  place.  It  is,  by  what  means  the  growth  and  cul- 
tivation of  these  arts  among  a  people  can  be  best  pro- 
moted ;  whether  by  the  patronage  and  fostering  care 
of  the  government,  or  by  means  simply  of  private  en- 
terprise. This  question  has  been  long  and  much  agi- 
tated ;  the  books  of  the  political  economists  being  on 
one  side,  and  the  almost  invariable  practice  of  civilized 
nations  on  the  other.  Reasons  might  be  assigned  for 
at  least  suspecting,  that  the  far-famed  speculations  of 
Smith,  McCulloch,  and  their  distinguished  followers, 
in  defence  of  what  they  have  invidiously  termed  free 
trade,  are  not  altogether  untainted  by  fallacy  ;  and  that 
the  charge,  especially,  which  they  so  often  reiterate 
against  the  protecting  pohcy,  that  it  is  essentially  a 
monopoly,  taxing  one  class  for  the  benefit  of  another, 
is  unfounded  in  fact.  Reasons  might  be  assigned  for 
the  opinion,  that  these  speculations  contemplate  a  state 
of  things  which  nowhere  e.xists,  and  that  conclusions, 
drawn  under  such  circumstances,  and  not  according 
with  the  judgement  or  experience  of  practical  men, 
should  be  received  with  much  caution.  But  it  may 
be  well,  that  such  discussions  should  be  waived.  How- 
ever cogent  may  be  the  arguments  in  favor  of  a  pro- 


PRODUCTIVE  EMPLOYMENT.  291 

tecting  policy,  unless  they  are  likely  to  prevail  with  the 
people  of  our  country,  and  to  secure  the  firm  and  con- 
sistent administration  of  such  a  policy,  they  may  well 
be  spared.  Frequent  and  gieat  changes  in  the  course 
of  the  government,  on  such  a  question,  are  much  more 
injurious  than  entire  neglect :  and  after  the  legislation 
of  1833,  by  which  not  only  an  end  is  to  be  put  to  dis- 
criminating duties,  in  1842,  but  the  power  of  all  future 
legislatures  to  lay  duties  for  the  protection  of  domestic 
industry,  or  the  countervailing  of  foreign  restrictions,  is 
negatived,  and  in  view,  too,  of  the  sudden  and  capri- 
cious vicissitudes  through  which  our  protecting  system 
has  so  often  been  compelled  to  pass,  it  may  be  wise, 
that  the  question  should  rest  for  a  season. 

But,  if  the  career  of  industry,  which  we  have  com- 
menced so  auspiciously,  and  prosecuted  so  nobly,  which 
has  enabled  us  to  compete  with  England,  on  her  own 
favorite  ground,  and  even  to  supersede  her,  in  the  mak- 
ing of  coarse  cottons,  in  the  markets  of  her  own  Indies  ; 
if  this  career  is  still  to  be  on  the  ascendant,  it  will  need, 
to  use  the  words  already  quoted,  of  Washington,  the 
concurrence  of  virtuous  individuals,  and  the  combina- 
tions of  economical  societies,  to  rely,  as  much  as  possi- 
ble, on  the  resources  of  our  own  country.  It  will  need, 
that  the  patriotic  determination  to  prefer  American  fab- 
rics should  become  more  general  and  cordial ;  that  our 
dealers,  instead  of  being  compelled  to  give  to  domestic 
goods  a  British  mark,  in  order  to  secure  a  sale,  should 
find  that  an  American  stamp  is  one  of  the  highest  rec- 
ommendations. It  will  need,  that  we  require,  in  the 
products  of  our  looms  and  workshops,  not  so  much 
ciieapness  as  excellence ;  that  we  encourage  the  high- 
est order  of  workmanship,  and  show  tliat  we  can  ap- 
preciate that  perfection,  towards  which  all  arts  ought  to 
aspire.  It  will  be  necessary,  that  we  spread  among  our 
people  juster  views  of  the  influence  of  manufactures ; 
that  we  contribute,  by  means  of  exhibitions  and  premi- 
ums, to  awaken  emulation,  and  develope  inventive  ge- 
nius ;  and  that  we  train  those,  who  are  to  follow  these 


292     INFLUENCE  OF  THE  USEFUL  ARTS,  ETC. 

pursuits,  in  the  theory  as  well  as  in  the  practice  of  then 
art.  And  above  all,  will  it  be  necessary,  that  our  people 
become  still  more  preeminent  than  they  now  are,  ^or 
intelligence  and  morality.  One  of  the  greatest  advan- 
tages which,  it  is  admitted,  we  enjoy,  as  a  manufac- 
turing people,  is  in  this  superiority ;  in  the  greater  so- 
briety and  mental  activity  of  our  workmen.  This 
superiority  we  must  not  only  maintain,  but,  above  all, 
^vhen  our  arts  and  manufactures  are  about  to  lose  the 
protection  of  the  government,  we  must  be  careful  to  ad- 
vance it.  We  must  remember,  that  it  is  mind,  enlight- 
ened, refined,  awakened,  virtuous,  mind,  which  must  win 
the  prize  ;  and  that,  in  the  race  of  industry,  as  in  every 
other,  it  is  righteopsness  which  exalteth  a  nation,  while 
sin  must  at  length  -  'rove  the  curse  of  any  people.* 
Bee  Appendix,  XII. 


APPENDIX. 


I.     Page  11. 

NATURE   AND   OBJECTS   OF  TECHNOLOGY. 

The  arts  considered  generally,  in  their  theory  and 
practice,  as  connected  with  moral,  political,  and  physi- 
cal, science,  form  the  subject  of  Technology,  which  now 
ranks  as  one  of  the  sciences. 

Technology  is  variously  divided  ;  by  some  writers 
mto  higher  and  lower ;  by  others,  into  universal  and 
particular. 

Higher  technology,  according  to  one  class  of  author- 
ities, relates  to  such  arts  only,  as  require  a  higher  degree 
of  knowledge  and  skill  in  those  who  practise  them. 
Such  are  watchmaking,  shipbuilding,  &,c.  According 
to  others,  higher  technology  treats  of  the  connexion  of 
the  arts  and  trades  with  the  political  condition  of  a  na- 
tion, their  influence  on  civilization,  &c.  &c. 

Universal  technology  comprehends  the  principles 
which  apply  to  all  the  arts ;  particular  technology 
teaches  the  rationale  and  practical  operations  of  partic- 
ular arts.  Particular  technology  is  subdivided  into,  1. 
The  knowledge  of  raw  materials ;  2.  Instruments  and 
machines ;  3.  Processes,  manipulations,  &c. ;  4.  Man- 
ufactured articles,  as  to  quality,  &c. 

25* 


294  APPENDIX. 


II.     Page  11. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  ARTS. 

The  arts  are  classified,  sometimes  according  to  the 
operating  powers,  or  agents,  as  into  mechanical  and 
chemical  ai'ts ;  sometimes,  according  to  the  natural  de- 
rivation of  the  raw  materials,  as  into  animal,  vegetable, 
dec;  sometimes,  according  to  the  principal  operations 
employed  in  them,  as  spinning,  iveaving ;  and  some- 
times, according  to  the  relation  of  the  products.  One 
or  another  of  these  classifications  will  be  found  most 
convenient,  according  to  the  special  object  we  have 
in  view.  Being  more  or  less  arbitrary,  they  are  nec- 
essarily imperfect.  Beckmann,  long  eminent  as  Pro- 
fessor of  Technology  in  the  University  of  Gottingen, 
founds  his  division,  (as  does  also  Hermbstadt,  a  Ger- 
man writer  of  authority.)  on  the  last  two  principles 
mentioned  above ;  that  is,  on  operations  and  products. 
Poppe,  Professor  at  Frankfort  on  the  Maine,  proposes 
a.  threefold  dWiiion,  1.  Mechanical  arts ;  2.  Chemical, 
(wet ;)  3.  Chemical,  (dry  ;)  subdividing  each  into  such 
arts  as  serve  for,  1.  Food;  2.  Clothing;  3.  Dwellings; 
4.  Comfort ;  5.  Pleasure.  This  arrangement  was  pro- 
posed, in  order  to  avoid  separating,  unnaturally,  those 
things  which  are  nearly  related. 

I  annex,  for  the  satisfaction  of  the  reader,  a  full  clas- 
sification, proposed  by  Dr.  lire,  in  his  •'  Philosophy  of 
Manufactures.' 

Manufactures  are  divisible  into  two  great  classes,  ac- 
cording as  thev  change  the  external  form,  or  the  inter- 
nal constitution  of  their  raw  materials.  Hence  the  dis- 
tinction of  mechanical  and  chemical  arts.  Each  class 
may  be  subdivided  into  three  famihes,  according  as  it 
operates  on  mineral,  vegetable,  or  animal,  substances ; 
thus  presenting  to  the  student  three  orders  of  manu- 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE   ARTS. 


295 


factures,  which   possess  many  interesting  natural  af- 
finities. 

Iron  will  aflbrd  the  means  of  illustrating  these  rela- 
tions. The  ore  of  the  metal  is  detected,  and  valued  by 
chemical  research  ;  but  it  is  dug  and  brought  to  the 
market,  by  mechanical  agency.  The  chemist  conducts 
the  process  of  smelting  it  into  cast  iron,  as  well  as  the 
conversion  of  the  crude  metal  into  malleable  iron  and 
steel,  aided  by  the  ministry  of  the  engineer.  For  the 
purposes  of  art,  iron  is  deprived  of  its  metallic  state, 
and  acquires  many  new  forms  and  qualities,  by  new 
combinations  of  its  elementary  particles.  Its  various 
oxides,  sulphurets,  salts,  &c.,  therefore,  belong  to  chem- 
ical manufactures.  The  mechanical  group  compre- 
hends the  operations  of  the  foundry,  the  forge,  the  roll- 
ing-mill, the  slitting-mill,  the  flatting-mill,  &c. 

Mechanical  ^iris. 

The  general  classification  of  the  mechanical  manu- 
factures may  be  made  either  in  the  order  of  their  le- 
spective  subjects,  as  these  are  arranged,  by  the  natural 
historian,  in  the  mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal,  king- 
doms, or  according  to  the  nature  of  the  mechanical  and 
physical  actions  exercised  on  these  subjects.  On  the 
former  plan,  analogous  arts  would  often  be  necessarily 
disjoined,  in  consequence  of  the  disjoined  origin  of  their 
materials,  however  similar  their  principles  and  processes 
might  be.  Thus,  tiic  woollen  and  cotton  manufactures, 
though  closely  allied,  would  need  to  be  separately  con- 
sidered, under  the  two  distinct  departments  of  the  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  world. 

The  true  philosophical  principle  of  classifying  the 
mechanical  manufactures,  is  to  arrange  them  in  the 
order  of  the  general  properties  of  matter,  which  it  is 
their  object  to  modify.  The  several  properties,  on 
which  mechanical  and  physical  forces  are  made  to  act, 
in  order  to  change  the  forms  of  bodies,  for  the  uses  of 
life,  are  the  following : 

I.  Divisibility  ;  II.  Impenetrability,  or  Repulsitx 


296  APPENDIX. 

ness ;  III.  Permeabiliti/,  o)' Porosity;  IV.  Cohesive- 
ness ;  Y.  Ductility  ;  \l.  Malleability  ;  Yll.  Inertiu  ; 
Ylli.  Gravitation';  IX.  Elasticity  ;  X.  Softness  ;  XI. 
Tenacity;  XII.  Fusibility;  XIII.  Crystallizability. 
I.  Divisibility. — To  tliis  head,  may  be  referred  the 
following  processes  of  art :  1 .  Pulverizing  dry  sub- 
stances; 2.  Triturating  solid  substances  with  liquids 
into  a  pasty  consistence ;  3.  Boring ;  4.  Sawing ;  5. 
Rasping  and  chipping  ;  6.  Tearing ;  7.  Abrading  sur- 
faces;  8.  Splitting:  9.  Planing;  10.  Turning  surfaces; 
11.  Shearing  surfaces;  12.  Granulating  and  shot- 
casting;  13.  Distilling;  14.  Subliming;  15.  Explo- 
ding, or  blasting,  for  mining  purposes ;  16.  Comminu- 
tion of  earths  and  soils. 

1.  Pulverization. — This  operation  is  performed  by 
various  machines,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
stance to  be  pulverized ;  such  as  corn-mills,  fiour-mills, 
drug-mills,  manganese,  chrome  ore,  and  other  mill?  for 
pulverizing  mineral  substances ;  dye-mills,  stamp-mills, 
and  other  crushing  machinery.  d:c. 

2.  Trituration. — To  this  head  belong  color,  or  paint 
mills,  flint,  and  other  pottery  mills,  and  comminuting 
processes  ;  certain  drug-mills ;  patio,  and  other  amalga- 
mation works,  &c. 

3.  Boring. — Here,  the  action  of  the  cutter  and  drill 
is  employed  to  form  cylindrical  cavities  for  steam-en- 
gines, hydraulic-presses,  pump-barrels ;  cannon,  gun 
barrels  :  mine  and  Artesian-well  boring.  &c. 

4.  Saiving. — Sawing  comprehends  every  species  of 
mill  for  cutting  off  flat  plates  of  timber,  stone,  metal, 
&,c. ;  such  as  saw-mills,  of  every  kind,  marble-mills, 
stone-cutting  works,  &c. 

5.  Rasping  and  chipping. — Under  these  titles  would 
fall  masonry,  or  stone-hewing,  the  mechanical  part  of 
statuary  ;  rasping-mills  for  logwood,  beet  root,  and  ma- 
chines for  chipping  the  teeth  of  wheel  patterns,  &-c. 

6.  Teanng. — To  this  head  may  be  referred  paper- 
making,  as  well  as  flax-heckling,  for  tearing  off"  its  pa- 
renchymatous matter,  threshinc;-machines,  &c. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  ARTS.  297 

7.  Abrasion  of  surfaces. — This  process  will  com- 
prehend all  filing  and  polishing  operations,  such  as 
grinding  and  polishing  of  metals,  of  glass,  marble,  &.c. 
Mirror  and  lens  making  belong  to  this  class,  as  well  as 
cutlery-grinding  of  every  kind. 

8.  Splitting. — Here  would  be  considered  the  art 
of  splitting  skins  for  cards  and  parchment ;  splitting 
timber  for  laths,  whalebone,  and  other  fibrous  sub- 
stances, Sec. 

9.  Flaning. — Planing-machincs,  now  so  beneficially 
used  in  the  working  of  metals  for  machinery  of  every 
kind,  as  well  as  for  flooring,  and  other  planks  of  wood, 
fall  under  this  division,  as  well  as  the  key-groove  cut- 
ting machines,  and  many  others. 

10.  Turning. — Every  species  of  turning-lathe,  in 
which  a  cutting  edge  is  applied  to  surfaces  in  a  state 
of  rapid  revolution,  belongs  to  this  process. 

11.  Shearing. — This  process  includes  that  beautiful 
branch  of  manufacture,  by  which  woollen  cloth,  after 
being  woven,  is  finished,  with  a  soft,  smooth  surface. 
It  is  performed  on  the  principle  of  shaving,  by  moving 
a  slightly  inclined,  or  nearly  horizontal  blade,  close  to 
the  downy  surface.  As  mowing  machines  operate  in  a 
similar  way,  they  may  be  considered  under  this  head. 

1-2.  Granulating,  and  shot-casting. — In  these  pro- 
cesses, the  property  of  divisibility  is  acted  on  by  the 
solvent  power  of  heat,  which,  skilfully  made  use  of, 
saves  the  labor  of  grinding  a  fusible  solid.  The  melted 
mass  being  nearly  void  of  cohesion,  is  separable,  like 
water,  into  a  shower  of  drops,  which  congeal  in  the 
course  of  their  descent  from  the  top  of  the  shot-towers 
into  the  water-cistern  at  their  base.  The  refiner  of 
gold  and  silver,  and  the  alloyer  in  general,  granulate 
their  melted  metal,  by  pouring  it  on  a  bundle  of  moist 
twigs,  or  by  trituration  in  a  cold  mortar. 

13.  Distilling. — Here,  again,  the  force  of  caloric 
divides  matter,  whether  solid  or  liquid,  into  separate 
substances,  in  the  order  of  their  expansiveness,  by  that 
physical  agent.     All  the  varieties  of  stills  belong  to  this 


298  APPENDIX. 

head,  all  the  mechanical  processes  of  the  rectifier  and 
compounder  of  alcohol,  the  manufacturers  of  coal  gas, 
and  pyroligneous  acid.  v5cc. 

14.  Subliming. — The  same  physical  influence  is  here 
employed,  to  divide  and  comminute,  by  separating  the 
more  volatile  parts  of  bodies,  which,  in  the  aeriform 
state  of  repulsiveness  among  their  particles  being  sud- 
denly cooled,  precipitate  in  an  impalpable  powder. 

15.  Exploding,  or  blasting. — The  property  of  di- 
visibility is  in  this  case  acted  upon,  and  made  effec- 
tive, by  the  sudden  generation  of  elastic  fluid,  in  such 
force,  as  to  overcome  the  cohesion  of  the  solid  mass. 
Under  this  head  might  perhaps  be  considered  the  sim- 
ple action  of  ignition,  in  effecting  the  disintegration  of 
rocks  for  mining  purposes. 

16.  Comminuting,  or  disintegrating  earths  and 
soils. — Tillage,  with  the  spade,  pickaxe,  plough,  har 
row,  &.C. 

To  till  the  ground,  or  break  the  stubborn  glebe  with 
the  furrow,  is  merely  a  division  of  its  parts,  to  render 
the  earthy  substances  friable,  in  order  that  the  roots 
of  plants  may  insinuate  themselves  more  easily  into  it ; 
that  the  rains  and  dews  may  penetrate  more  readily  to 
these  roots ;  that  any  excess  of  water  may  more  freely 
exhale  ;  and  lastly,  that  the  air  of  the  atmosphere  may 
get  access  to  the  vegetable  mould  of  the  soil,  and  con- 
vert it  into  soluble  vegetable  food,  on  principles  devel- 
oped by  chemistrv.  The  proper  comminution  of  the 
soil,  by  the  plough  and  tlie  harrow,  is  serviceable,  also, 
in  destroying  weeds,  in  bringing  up  to  the  surface  fresh 
layers  of  earth,  incorporating  with  it  manure  and  other 
improvers,  and  in  giving  a  slope  to  the  ground  favora- 
ble to  its  drainage.  The  importance  of  the  pulverizing 
process  is  so  well  known,  that  tillage  and  agriculture 
have  been  long  used  as  synonymous  terms.  All  its  pro- 
cesses act  on  the  divisibility  of  the  soil  in  three  ways : 
1.  By  the  spade;  2.  By  the  pickaxe  and  hoe;  3.  By 
the  plough,  with  its  wedge-shaped  share,  which  cuts 
obliquely  througii  the  clod,  and  turns  it  over  to  one  side 


CLASSIFICATION  OB'  THE   ARTS.  5299 

Spade-tillagc  suits  best  for  a  soil  which  is  uniform  in 
texture,  deep,  compact,  level,  and  not  very  stony  or 
moist.  That  of  the  pickaxe,  or  mattock,  is  most  proper 
for  land  that  is  stony,  dry,  difficult  to  penetrate,  and 
uneven,  or  slopini?  in  its  surface.  The  plough,  though 
a  less  perfect  pulverizing  agent,  is  more  expeditious, 
economical,  and  generally  applicable  to  grounds,  ex- 
cepting to  steep  declivities.  The  best  form  of  plough- 
share, for  dividing  the  soil,  is  an  interesting  problem  in 
mechanical  philosophy. 

II.  Impenetkability. — This  property  gives  rise  to 
works  for  separating,  by  compression,  the  liquid  from 
the  solid  parts  of  bodies,  in  virtue  of  the  impenetrabil- 
ity of  matter.  Under  this  class  are  comprehended  oil- 
mills,  sugar-mills,  beet-root-presses,  cocoanut-lard-mills, 
all  of  which  operate  either  by  the  flat  pressure  of  a  hy- 
draulic or  screw  press,  or  by  the  pressure  of  surfaces 
rolling  on  each  other ;  the  object  being  to  extract  in- 
compressible liquid  matter  from  tiie  interstitial  pores  of 
a  solid.  Die-presses  for  coining,  and  transferring  en- 
gravings from  hard  steel  to  soft  steel  or  copper,  may 
be  arranged  either  under  impenetrability  or  condensa- 
bility. # 

III.  Permeability. — This  property  admits  of  one  or 
more  matters  to  pass  through  or  impregnate  the  inter- 
stices of  solids.  Filtering  apparatus,  for  sugar-refiners, 
for  purifying  oils,  and  many  other  liquids,  by  means  of 
bibulous  paper,  sand,  stones,  with  or  without  external 
pressure,  as  well  as  dyeing,  calico-printing,  letter-press, 
copper-plate,  and  lithographic,  printing,  belong  to  this 
head. 

IV.,  v.,  VI.  Cohesion,  Ductility,  Malleability  or 
Lamixability. — These  are  kindred  properties,  and  are 
the  foundations  of  kindred  works,  such  as  wire-drawing, 
and  tube-drawing  apparatus,  rolling-mills,  flatting-mills, 
tilting-mills,  laminating-mills,  gold  and  silver  leaf-beat- 
ing, &.C. 

VII.,  VIII.  Inertia,  Gravitation. — In  reference  to 
these  properties,  the  raising,  lowering,  and  removing. 


300  APPENDIX. 

weights,  come  to  be  considered.  These  effects  are  pro- 
duced by  cranes,  capstans,  windlasses,  gins  for  raising 
coals  and  other  minerals ;  pulleys,  wheels  and  axles ; 
inclined  planes  for  joining  different  canal  levels ;  pumps, 
for  lifting  water  ;  dredging  machines  ;  carriages  of  every 
kind.  The  equilibrium  of  architecture,  and  of  ship- 
building, may  be  treated  here. 

IX.,  X.,  XI.  Elasticity,  Softxess,  axd  Tenaci- 
ty.— These  three  properties  are  combined  in  the  consti- 
tution of  tortile  fibres,  used  for  making  webs  of  various 
kinds,  and  give  rise  to  the  arts  of  spinning,  knitting,  and 
weaving,  mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal,  filaments  ;  the 
principal  of  which  are  the  manufactures  of  cotton,  wool, 
flax,  and  silk.  Rope-making  and  wire-working  belong 
also  to  this  head.  Under  tortility  must  likewise  be 
considered  the  processes  of  fulling,  felting,  and  the 
manufacture  of  hats. 

XII.  Fusibility. — To  this  property  belong  foundries 
of  the  different  metals,  and  the  mechanical  part  of  glass- 
making,  as  well  as  casting  figures  in  plaster,  wax,  dsc. 

XIII.  Crystallizability. — This  property  includes 
the  various  physical  principles  of  the  manufactures  of 
saline  substances,  such  as  salt-works,  nitre-works,  alum- 
works,  &c. 

The  sixth  of  the  above  divisions  comprehends  the 
mechanical  arts  most  interesting  to  man.  Here  he  has 
exercised  his  best  talents,  in  producing  raiment  of  every 
variety  for  his  comfort  and  decoration  ;  and  here,  accor- 
dingly, he  has  organized  systems  of  industry,  no  less  re- 
markable for  their  magnitude  than  for  their  perfection. 
In  certain  parts  of  the  clothing  manufactures,  moreover, 
automatic  machinery  has  been  so  extensively  substituted 
for  the  labors  of  intelligence,  that  the  superintendence 
of  young  persons  has  come  to  supersede  the  costly  toil 
of  adults,  to  such  an  extent,  that  the  vast  multitudes  of 
children  thus  employed  have,  of  late  years,  attracted 
the  earnest  consideration  of  the  public,  and  have,  in 
consequence,  led  the  legislature  to  frame  a  code  of  fac- 
tory laws  for  their  protection. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE   ARTS.  301 

Chemical  Manufactures. 

Tliose  arts  which  involve  the  operation  of  chemical 
affinities,  and  consequently,  a  change  in  the  constitution 
of  their  subject  matter,  may  be  distributed  into  three 
groups,  according  to  the  kingdom  of  Nature  to  which 
they  belong: — the  mineral,  the  vegetable,  and  the  ani- 
mal. 

Class  I.  The  chemical  manufactures  employed  on 
mineral,  or,  more  accurately  speaking,  inorganic,  mat- 
ter, may  be  arranged  conveniently  under  four  heads: 
i.  Those  which  operate  on  metallic  bodies ;  ii.  On 
earthy  and  stony  substances  ;  iii.  On  combustibles  ;  iv. 
On  saline  substances. 

Class  II.  The  chemical  manufactures  which  modify 
vegetable  substances  may  be  distributed  according  to 
the  chemical  analogies  of  these  substances,  as  starch, 
sugar,  oils,  essences,  &c. 

Class  III.  The  chemical  manufactures  which  modi- 
fy animal  substances  may  likewise  be  distributed  ac- 
cording to  the  chemical  analogies  of  their  respective 
objects:   as  gelatine,  or  glue,  albumen,  skin,  horn,  &c. 

Class  I.  Order  i.  Arts  and  manufactures  of  metallic 
substances:  1.  Extraction,  purification,  alloying  of  the 
precious  metals,  gold,  silver,  &c.,  and  their  dift'erent 
chemical  preparations.  2.  The  arts  of  smelting  cop- 
per, and  making  its  alloys,  its  saline  and  other  prepara- 
tions. 3.  The  arts  of  smelting  iron,  and  making  its  al- 
loys, its  saline  and  other  prepartions.  4.  The  arts  of 
smelting  lead,  &.c.  5.  The  arts  of  smelting  tin,  &.c 
6.  The  arts  of  smelting  mercury,  &c.  7.  The  arts  ol 
smelting  zinc,  &c.  S.  The  arts  of  smelting  bismuth, 
&c.  9.  The  arts  of  smelting  antimony,  &c.  10.  The 
arts  of  smelting  cobalt,  &c.  11.'  The  arts  of  smelting 
nickel,  &.c.  12.  The  arts  of  smelting  manganese,  &c. 
13.  The  arts  of  smelting  arsenic,  &c.  14.  The  arts 
of  smelting  cliromium,  &c.  15.  The  arts  of  extracting 
the  other  metals,  cadmium,  bismuth,  rhodium,  &,c. 

Class  I.  Order  ii.     Arts  and  manufactures  of  earthy 
26  s.  A. 


302  APPENDIX. 

and  stony  substances :  1.  Those  which  operate  on  cal- 
careous substances  ;  such  as  limestones,  gypsum,  fluor- 
spar, &c.  Mortars.  2.  Those  which  operate  on  argil- 
laceous earth,  or  clay ;  as  the  manufactures  of  pottery, 
porcelain,  &c.  3.  Those  which  operate  on  silicious 
matter.     Manufacture  of  glass. 

Class  I.  Order  iii.  Arts  and  manufactures  of  com- 
bustible substances :  1.  Sulphur.  Manufacture  of  sul- 
phuric acid.  2.  Coal.  Manufacture  of  coal  gas,  and 
its  various  products.  3.  Amber,  petroleum,  bitumen, 
asphaltum. 

Class  I.  Order  iv.  Arts  and  manufactures  of  miner- 
al saline  substances  :  1 .  Rock  or  sea  salt ;  salt-works 
of  various  kinds  ;  manufacture  of  muriatic  acid,  and  of 
chlorine.  Art  of  bleaching.  2.  Alum,  its  manufac- 
ture. 3.  Natron,  or  soda,  its  manufacture.  4.  Pot- 
ash, its  manufacture.  5.  Sal-ammoniac,  its  manufac- 
ture. 6.  Nitre,  its  manufacture  ;  that  of  gunpowder, 
nitric  acid,  &c.  7.  Borax,  its  manufacture.  8.  Sul- 
phate of  magnesia,  its  manufacture. 

Class  II.  The  chemical  manufactures  of  vegetable 
substances.  1 .  The  art  of  extracting  and  refining  sugar. 
2.  The  art  of  extracting  and  purifying  starch.  3.  The 
art  of  making  artificial  gum.  4.  Extraction  and  purifi- 
cation of  fixed  oils,  drying  and  unctuous  oils,  such  as  lin- 
seed oil,  castor  oil,  nut  oil,  &,c.,  oil  of  olives,  of  almonds, 
of  the  palm,  of  the  cocoa-nut,  &c.  Manufacture  of  oil 
soaps.  5.  Extraction  and  purification  of  volatile  oils, 
such  as  oil  of  turpentine,  citron,  anise,  cinnamon,  laven- 
der, &c.  Art  of  the  perfumer.  6.  Art  of  purifying 
and  bleaching  wax.  7.  Extraction  and  purification  of 
resinous  bodies,  such  as  common  rosin,  lac,  mastic,  &c. 
Manufacture  of  varnishes  and  sealing-wax.  8.  Extrac- 
tion of  caoutchouc ;  caoutchoucine.  Manufacture  of 
water-proof  cloth.  9.  Preparation  of  extracts  for  the 
apothecary  ;  extract  of  nut-galls.  Manufacture  of  ink. 
10.  Extraction  of  the  coloring  matter  of  plants,  as  of 
madder,  safi^ower,  archil,  logwood,  weld,  indigo,  &c. 
Arts  of  dyeing  and  calico-printinij     1 1 .  Art  of  ferment- 


CONNEXION   OF  THE  USEFUL  AND  FINE   ARTS.       303 

ing  vegetable  juices  and  extracts  into  wine,  beer,  &c. 
Breweries,  distilleries,  &c.  1-2.  Art  of  fermenting  veg- 
etable juices  and  extracts  into  vinegar.  13.  Art  of  fer- 
menting dough  into  bread.  Baking.  14.  Decompo- 
sition of  wood  by  fire  in  close  vessels.  Pyroxilic  acid, 
spirit,  and  naphtha.  15.  Preparation  of  composts  by 
the  putrid  decomposition  of  vegetable  substances.  Ag- 
riculture as  a  chemical  art. 

Class  III.  The  chemical  manufactures  of  animal 
substances  are,  1.  The  art  of  extracting  and  purifying 
gelatine,  or  tlie  manufacture  of  glue,  size,  isinglass,  &c. 
2.  The  art  of  extracting  butter  from  milk.  Manufac- 
ture of  cheeses.  3.  The  art  of  converting  skin  into 
leather,  or  tanning.  \.  The  art  of  the  tallow-chandler. 
Purification  of  spermaceti.  5.  The  manufacture  of 
tallow  and  other  soaps.  6.  Preparation  of  animal  pig- 
ments.— carmine  from  cochineal.  7.  The  art  of  curing 
animal  food.  8.  Decomposition  of  animal  substances 
by  fire.  Manufacture  of  sal-ammoniac,  and  of  Prussian 
blue. 

The  preceding  table  presents  merely  the  more  gener 
al  objects  and  subdivisions. 


III.     Page  12. 

CONNKXION  OF  THE  USEFUL   AND  FINE  ARTS. 

This  connexion  is  in  some  cases  very  intimate.  For 
r*  example,  silks,  porcelain,  calicoes,  &,c.,  derive  much  of 
their  value  from  the  designs  with  which  they  are  embel- 
lished ;  and  hence  the  necessity  of  combining  the  culti- 
vation of  the  Arts  of  Design  with  the  fabrication  of  these 
articles.  So  in  building  and  engineering.  Drawing  is  an 
indispensable  prerequisite.  It  has  been  found,  too,  that 
in  many  cases,  such  as  architecture,  the  nearer  we  ap- 
proach to  abstract  beauty  of  form,  the  more  perfectly  we 
attain  that  which  is  useful,  convenient,  or  economical. 


304  .  APPENDIX. 

The  following  extract  from  lire's  '  Philosophy  of 
Manufactures^  will  show  how  fully  this  connexion  is 
appreciated  by  the  French,  and  by  what  means  they 
have  attained  the  superiority  which  distinguishes  them 
in  certain  departments  of  industry. 

The  modes  in  which  taste  is  cultivated  at  Lyons,  in 
connexion  with  the  silk  manufacture,  deserve  particu- 
lar study  and  imitation.  Among  the  weavers  of  the 
place,  the  children,  and  every  body  connected  witii  de- 
vising patterns,  much  attention  is  devoted  to  every  thing 
in  any  way  connected  with  the  beautiful,  either  in  fig- 
ure or  color.  Weavers  may  be  seen,  in  their  holy  day 
leisure,  gathering  flowers,  and  grouping  them  in  the 
most  engaging  combinations.  They  are  continually 
suggesting  new  designs  to  their  employers ;  and  are 
thus  the  fruitful  source  of  elegant  patterns. 

There  is  hardly  any  considerable  house  in  Lyons,  in 
which  there  is  not  a  partner  who  owes  his  place  in  it  to 
his  success  as  an  artist.  The  town  of  Lyons  is  so  con- 
scious of  the  value  of  such  studies,  that  it  contributes 
twenty  thousand  francs  per  annum  to  the  government 
establishment  of  the  School  of  Arts,  which  takes  charcre 
of  every  youth  who  shows  an  aptitude  for  drawing,  or 
imitative  design  of  any  kind,  applicable  to  manufac- 
tures. Hence  all  the  eminent  painters,  sculptors,  even 
botanists  and  florists,  of  Lyons,  become  eventually  asso- 
ciated with  the  staple  trade,  and  devote  to  it  their  hap- 
piest conceptions.  In  the  principal  school,  that  of  St. 
Peter's,  there  are  about  one  hundred  and  eighty  stu- 
dents, every  one  of  whom  receives  from  the  town  a  gra- 
tuitous education  in  art  for  five  years ;  comprehending 
delineations  in  anatomy,  botany,  architecture,  and  loom- 
pattern  drawing.  A  botanical  garden  is  attached  to  the 
school.  The  government  allows  three  thousand  one 
hundred  francs  a  year  to  the  school  at  Lyons.  The 
school  supplies  the  scholars  with  every  thing  but  the 
materials,  and  allows  them  to  reap  the  benefit  of  their 
works.  Their  professor  of  painting  is  a  man  of  distin- 
guished talent,  well  known  to  connoisseurs. 


CONNEXION  OF  THE  USEFUL  AND  FINE  ARTS.      305 

The  French  manufacturer  justly  considers  that  his  pat- 
tern is  the  principal  element  of  his  success  in  trade  ;  for 
the  mere  handiwork  of  weaving  is  a  simple  affair,  with 
the  improved  Jacquard  loom.  He  therefore  visits  the 
school,  and  picks  out  the  boy  who  promises,  by  taste 
and  invention,  to  suit  his  purpose  the  best.  He  invites 
him  to  his  home,  boards  him,  and  gives  him  a  small 
salary,  to  be  gradually  advanced.  One  gentleman  told 
Dr.  Bowring  that  he  had  three  such  youths  in  his  em- 
ployment ;  to  the  youngest  of  whom  he  gave  one  thous- 
and francs,  or  forty  pounds,  [or  one  hundred  and  eigh- 
ty-four dollars,]  per  annum.  After  three  or  four  years, 
if  the  young  artist's  success  be  remarkable,  he  may  have 
his  salary  raised  to  double  or  treble  that  sum  ;  and  when 
his  reputation  is  once  established,  he  is  sure  of  the  offer 
of  a  partnership.  Such  is  the  general  history  of  many 
of  the  schoolboys  of  Lyons.  Even  the  French  weaver, 
who  earns  only  fifteen  or  twenty  pence  a  day,  prides 
himself  upon  his  knowledge  of  design  ;  he  will  turn 
over  several  hundred  patterns  in  his  possession,  and 
descant  on  their  relative  merits,  seldom  erring  far  in 
predicting  the  success  of  any  new  style.  By  this  dis- 
position, the  minds  of  the  silk-weavers  in  France  be- 
come elevated  and  refined,  instead  of  being  stultified  in 
gin-shoy)S,  as  those  of  the  English  too  frequently  are. 
In  flower  patterns,  the  French  designs  are  remarkably 
free  from  incongruities,  being  copied  from  Nature,  with 
scientific  precision.  They  supply  taste  to  the  wiiole 
world,  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  their  exportations, 
which  amount  to  one  hundred  and  ten  millions  out  of 
one  hundred  and  forty.  In  the  Lyons  school,  collec- 
tions of  silk  fabrics  may  be  studied,  extending  over  a 
period  of  four  thousand  years,  with  explanations  of  the 
modes  in  which  every  pattern  was  produced,  from  the 
rude  silk  of  the  Egyptian  mummies  to  the  figured  webs 
of  the  last  year. 

There  are  also  weaving-schools,  containing  from 
sixty  to  eighty  scholars.  In  these,  a  pattern  being  ex- 
hibited, they  are  required  to  exercise  their  invention, 
26* 


306  APPENDIX. 

immediately,  as  to  the  best  means  of  producing  the 
design  on  a  piece  of  silk  goods.  The  master  removes 
such  difficulties  as  are  occasionally  encountered,  and 
leads  them  on  to  the  successful  accomplishment  of  the 
task. 

Within  a  few  years,  a  large  legacy  has  been  left  by 
General  Martin,  for  the  purpose  of  estabhshing  another 
institution,  similar  to  the  school  of  St.  Peter. 

Their  superiority  in  art  is  turned  to  good  account,  in 
many  other  French  manufactures.  Notwithstanding 
the  double  price  of  the  raw  material  in  France,  their 
fancy  articles  in  iron  and  steel  are  exported  in  large 
quantities.  Their  bronze  figures  have  made  their  way 
into  all  parts  of  the  world,  along-side  of  their  silk  goods ; 
both  being  equally  productions  of  fine  taste,  and  there- 
fore yielding  profitable  returns. 


IV.     Pages  24  and  260. 

THE   niPORTAXCE  OF  SCIENCE  TO  THE  MECHANIC. 

[Extracts  from  an  Address  delivered  December  9,  1835,  at  the 
openingof  the  first  course  of  Lectures  before  the  Mechanics'  Literary 
and  Benevolent  Society  of  Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  by  A.  Pot- 
ter.] 

I  NEED  hardly  remind  this  assembly,  that  the  com- 
mencement of  such  an  enterprise  is  an  event  of  some 
public  importance.  Though  composed,  for  the  most 
part,  of  mechanics,  and  to  be  conducted  with  a  special 
view  to  their  improvement,  it  by  no  means  follows  that 
this  association  is  interesting  or  important  only  to  them. 
In  contributing  to  their  welfare,  it  must  contribute,  in 
the  same  proportion,  to  the  welfare  of  all.  For,  be  it 
remembered,  that  the  manufacturers,  mechanics,  and  ar- 
tisans, of  this  place,  form  its  most  numerous,  and,  I  may 
add,  its  most  useful  and  influential  class.  As  the  coun- 
try supplies  the  raw  materials  of  human  subsistencp, 


IMPORTANCE  OF  SCIENCE  TO  THE  MECHANIC.      307 

and  is  occupied  principally  by  an  agricultural  popula- 
tion ;  so  it  is  in  towns  and  cities  that  these  materials 
are  worked  up  into  articles  of  use  and  luxury,  by  me- 
chanics and  artisans,  who,  with  their  families,  consti- 
tute its  principal  inhabitants.  They  are  the  young 
mechanics  and  apprentices  of  a  town,  therefore,  whose 
influence  is  to  be  most  powerfully  felt,  a  few  years 
hence,  on  its  industry  and  enterprise  ;  at  its  local  and 
general  elections ;  in  the  support  of  its  schools  and 
churches,  and  on  all  occasions  of  public  interest  or 
emergency.  If  the  town  is  to  be  improved,  enlighten- 
ed, elevated,  who  can  do  it,  so  eflectually,  as  its  most 
numerous  and  active  citizens  ?  and  if  it  is  to  decline  in 
morals,  intelligence,  and  prosperity,  believe  me,  that  it 
is  among  this  class  that  the  leprosy  will  first  break  out, 
and  its  foul  taint  be  most  widely  and  fatally  diffused. 
Tell  me,  of  any  town,  the  intellectual  and  moral  con- 
dition of  its  mechanics  and  operatives,  and  I  will  tell 
you  what  the  condition  of  the  town  itself  is.  Tell  me 
the  character  of  its  apprentices,  and  I  will  tell  you 
what  its  condition  ere  long  must  be. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  I  must  profess  my  amazement 
at  the  apathy  which  so  generally  prevails  respecting 
the  intellectual  and  moral  welfare  of  mechanics ;  and 
my  still  greater  amazement  at  the  contempt  (worthy 
only  of  a  dark  age)  with  which  some  are  disposed  to 
look  down  on  this  most  useful,  and  in  cities,  most  nu- 
merous and  powerful,  class.  Who  can  observe  the 
workings  of  the  social  system,  or  peruse  the  records  of 
the  past,  without  feeling  that  theirs  is  a  commanding 
influence  ?  What  class,  during  the  last  seven  centu- 
ries, occupies  a  more  prominent  place,  in  the  history 
of  civilization  and  of  constitutional  liberty  ?  Where, 
amidst  the  dense  darkness  of  the  middle  ages,  first 
arose  a  taste  for  the  comforts  and  refinements  of  life  ? 
Who  first  taught  the  feudal  lord  to  encourage  industry, 
instead  of  idleness ;  to  substitute  the  improvement  of 
his  estate,  and  the  embellishment  of  his  castle,  and  the 
cultivation  of  personal  refinement,  in  place  of  a  coarse 


308  APPENDIX. 

and  prodigal  hospitality  ?  Who  first  supplied  comrrio- 
dities  for  modern  commerce,  thus  opening  friendly  m- 
tercourse  between  distant,  dissimilar,  and  hitherto  hos- 
tile, nations,  and  making  the  inprovements  and  discov- 
eries of  one  the  common  property  of  all  ?  And,  above 
all,  who  first  rekindled  the  long-extinguished  spirit  of 
civil  liberty  ?  or,  rather,  let  me  say,  who,  for  the  first 
time,  lit  up  that  glorious  spirit,  which  alone  deserves  the 
name  of  civil  liberty, — a  spirit  which  demanded  writ- 
ten guarantees  for  individual  rights,  and  taught  that 
the  state,  instead  of  being  what  ancient  republicans 
considered  it. — a  stupendous  idol,  to  whose  honor  and 
aggrandizement  the  freedom  and  happiness  of  individ- 
uals were  to  be  profusely  sacrificed,  was  but  an  agent, 
or  servant,  appointed  for  the  benefit  of  all,  and  re- 
sponsible to  all,  alike,  for  its  faithful  stewardship  ?  To 
these  questions,  History  returns  one  and  the  same  an- 
swer. It  was  from  the  free  cities  of  Europe,  founded, 
sustained,  and  enriched,  by  mechanics  and  tradesmen, 
that  these  blessings  took  their  rise.  It  was  these  me- 
chanics and  tradesmen,  who  first  conceived  a  taste  for 
the  arts  and  comforts  of  peace,  who  communicated 
this  taste  to  the  higher  classes,  and  supplied  commerce 
with  its  rich  freights  of  wealth  and  utility.  It  was  they, 
who  first  taught  the  lesson,  not  yet  fully  learned  in 
Europe,  of  systematic  and  successful  resistance  to  ar- 
bitrary power.  Enterprizing  and  intelligent,  knowing 
what  was  due  to  their  industry  and  skill,  and  feeling 
that  royalty  itself  looked  for  protection  against  the  in- 
solence of  haughty  and  restless  barons  to  their  prowess 
and  wealth,  they  claimed  to  be  represented  in  the  coun- 
cils of  the  state.  Thus  arose  the  tiers  etat,  or  third  es- 
tate of  the  realm,  which  has  for  so  many  ages  held  the 
balance  of  power  in  Europe  between  the  monarch  and 
his  nobles,  and  which,  as  the  commons,  or  middling 
class,  has  been  infusing  more  and  more  of  freedom  into 
the  constitution  of  every  civihzed  people. 

In  this  land,  above  all  others,  it  becomes  us  to  make 
grateful  and  respectful  mention  of  the  services  which 


IMPORTANCE   OF   SCIENCE  TO  THE  MECHANIC.      309 

mechanics  have  rendered  to  the  cause  of  liberty.  Tlieir 
enterprise,  be  it  remembered,  was  among  the  causes 
which  first  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  mother  country 
towards  her  American  colonies.  It  was  by  her  oppres- 
sive and  unnatural  efibrts  to  strangle  that  enterprise, 
that  she  contributed  to  weaken  the  ties  of  affection 
which  bound  them  to  her,  and  awoke  on  these  shores 
a  cry  for  independence.  In  the  fearless  remonstrances 
which  were  laid  at  the  feet  of  royalty  ;  in  the  negotia- 
tions which  were  opened  ;  in  the  measures  of  retaliation 
which  were  concerted  and  put  in  execution  ;  in  the  firm 
and  enlightened  policy  which  saw  distinctly  its  object, 
and  moved  right  onward  to  its  attainment,  who  were 
more  active  or  influential  than  the  mechanics  ?  And 
when,  at  length,  the  die  was  cast,  and  the  tidings  from 
Lexington  and  Bunker  Hill  proclaimed  that  there  was 
no  hope,  but  in  arms  and  in  the  God  of  battles,  who 
stood  forth,  conspicuous,  in  the  field,  in  the  cabinet, 
and  at  foreign  courts  ?  In  the  army  of  the  Revolution, 
I  can  recall  no  name,  Washingtoir's  only  excepted, 
which  occupies  a  prouder  place  in  the  memory  and 
affections  of  a  grateful  people,  than  that  of  Nathaniel 
Greene,  the  blacksmith.  In  the  deliberations  of  Con- 
gress, and  in  the  negotiations  with  foreign  powers, 
I  see  no  worthier  representatives  of  the  cool,  sagacious, 
inflexible,  upright,  and  far-reaching  statesman,  than 
Benjamin  Franklin,  tlie  printer,  and  Roger  Sherman, 
the  shoemaker.  I  need  not  add  the  names  of  others, 
scarcely  less  honored.  If  we  would  know  what  me- 
chanics were,  at  the  era  of  the  revolution ;  and  what, 
in  point  of  influence,  they  must  ever  be,  in  a  country 
like  ours,  let  this  suffice  : — Of  the  committee  of  five, 
appointed  to  draw  up  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
two  were  mechanics.*  Of  the  brave  men  who  led  our 
armies,  he,  whom  Hamilton,  while  he  honored  Wash- 
ington as  '  the  first  man  of  the  country,'  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  style  even  '  the  fu'st  soldier  of  the  Revolution,'! 

♦Benjamin  Franklin  and  Roger  Sherman. 

t  Nathaniel  Greene.     This  fact  is  stated  by  Mr.  Verplanck,  in  his 


310  APPENDIX. 

was  a  iiiechanic.  He  who  was  the  first  choice  of  his 
country  as  her  representative  at  imperial  courts,  and 
who,  sent  to  baffle  the  arts  of  practised  diplomatists, 
and  face  the  menaces  of  exasperated  power,  did  it  all, 
and  did  it  triumphantly — was  a  mechanic.'^  And, 
finally,  he,  who  in  congress  and  in  conventions,  by  the 
mere  force  of  intellect  and  knowledge,  without  any 
gifts  of  eloquence  or  external  show,  could  still  com- 
mand the  confidence  and  sway  the  opinions  of  the  wis- 
est; the  man,  who,  to  use  the  language  of  Jefferson, 
■'•  never  said  a  foolish  thing  in  his  life,"  and  whom  an- 
other colleague  described  as  '-'a  slow-spoken  and  al- 
most tongue-tied  man,  but  with  a  head  as  clear  as 
light,"  he,  also  was  a  mechanic^ 

I  shall  not  be  suspected,  I  trust,  of  recurring  to  these 
facts  for  purposes  of  flattery.  I  recur  to  them,  that  I 
may  show  young  men  wliat  may  be  expected  of  those 
who  have  such  models.  I  recur  to  them,  that  I  may 
exhibit,  to  all  who  hear  me,  the  true  position,  both  po- 
litical and  moral,  in  which  mechanics  stand ;  and  the 
deep  interest  which  it  becomes  us  all  to  feel  in  their 
welfare  and  improvement.  And,  above  all,  I  recur  to 
them,  to  prove  that  manual  labor  and  study  are  not, 
as  they  are  generally  thought  to  be,  incompatible  ;  that 
it  is  perfectly  practicable  for  a  young  man  to  be  culti- 
vating the  highest  talents,  nursing  the  noblest  purposes, 
drinking  deeply  from  the  purest  springs  of  knowledge, 
while  he  still  pursues,  with  diligence  and  zeal,  his  daily 
task  in  the  forge,  or  at  the  work-bench. t  It  is  time  to 
do  away  that  unworthy  prejudice,  which  has  so  long 
tended  to  estrange  from  each  other  the  laboring  man 

Address  before  the  New-York  Mechanics'  Institute,  in  1833,  on  the 
authority  of  the  late  Col.  Marinus  Willett. 

*  Benjamin  Franklin. 

t  Roger  Sherman. 

t  For  an  interesting  example,  in  the  case  of  the  '  literary  Black 
smith,'  see  •  Importance  of  Useful  Education  and  Practical  Knowl 
edge,'  &c.,  by  Edward  Everett,  forming  the  nineteenth  volume  of 
•  The  School  Library.' 


IMPOKTASCE   OF   SCIENCE  TO  THE   MECHANIC.      311 

and  the  student ;  which  serves  to  perpetuate  that  dis- 
tinction between  ivorkingmeii  and  gentlemen,  wjiich, 
in  a  country  Hke  ours,  where  there  arc  no  licreditary 
prerogatives,  and  where  every  man  must  be,  at  last, 
the  artificer  of  liis  own  fortune,  is,  I  do  not  hesitate  to 
say,  of  all  distinctions,  the  most  absurd  and  pernicious. 
However  it  originates  ;  whether,  as  formerly,  in  a  dis- 
position to  stigmatize  all  labor ;  or  whether,  as  more 
recently,  in  a  wish  to  exalt  manual  labor  at  the  expense 
of  that  which  is  intellectual,  it  merits  only  execration. 
I  give  but  utterance  to  the  spirit  of  our  institutions, 
and  to  the  views  of  all  good  and  wise  men,  when  I  say, 
that  in  this  land  we  are,  or  at  least  ought  to  be,  all 
ivorkingmen  and  all  gentlemen.  If  there  is  any  dis- 
grace in  being  a  workingman,  in  winning  one's  way  to 
respectability  and  usefulness  by  means  of  effort  and  in- 
dustry, let  it  attach  to  him  who  toils  with  his  brain,  as 
well  as  to  him  who  works  with  his  hands.  And  if 
tiiere  is  any  honor  in  it,  let  it  not  be  reserved  for  him 
alone  who  wields  the  axe  or  tiie  hammer ;  but  let  him, 
who  adds  to  this  the  faithful  use  of  his  mental  and 
moral  powers  ;  and  him,  too,  who,  though  not  a  me- 
chanic, nor  in  the  ordinary  sense,  a  laborer,  still  spares 
no  toil,  if  he  can  but  restore  his  client  to  his  rights,  or 
his  patients  to  health  ;  and  him,  who,  while  the  me- 
chanic is  stretched  upon  his  couch,  in  profound  and 
refreshing  slumbers,  has  to  keep  anxious  and  wasting 
vigils,  preparing  for  his  place  in  the  desk,  or  in  the  dis- 
charge of  official  duty, — let  him,  too,  receive  his  share 
of  honor,  at  the  hands  of  the  Republic.  In  this  coun- 
try, where  so  few  are  born  to  opulence,  and  none  to 
station,  labor  of  some  kind  is  the  iniieritance  of  all ; 
and  whoever  pursues  that  labor,  in  a  liberal  and  en- 
lightened spirit ;  striving  to  cultivate  his  talents,  and  re- 
fine his  taste  ;  ready  for  every  good  word  and  work,  and 
never  content  while  he  may  win  for  himself  a  brighter 
name,  and  a  larger  sphere  of  action  ;  he  is,  in  the  truest 
and  highest  sense,  a  gentleman. — and,  if  he  lives,  will 
one  day  take  his  place  beside  the  proudest  of  the  land. 


312  APPENDIX. 

But  how  can  young  men,  situated  as  the  mechanic 
and  apprentice  are,  still  make  great  advances  in  useful 
knowledge  ?  and  why  should  they  do  it  ? 

First,  then,  as  to  the  manner  in  which  it  may  be 
done.  You  will  perceive,  here,  that  I  suppose  the 
young  mechanic  to  continue  his  accustomed  occupa- 
tions, and  that,  too,  with  no  remission  of  industry  or 
zeal.  He  is,  in  this  respect,  to  do  all  that  the  most 
scrupulous  could  ask  ;  and  yet  he  shall  have  time  enough 
and  means  enough,  to  make  great  attainments  in  useful 
knowledge. 

He  shall  have  time  enough.  You  have  not  failed  to 
discover,  before  this,  that  a  man's  achievements  do  not 
depend  upon  the  time  allowed  him.  They  depend, 
rather,  on  his  energy  and  spirit.  To  a  listless,  lethar- 
gic, idle  man,  you  might  give  ages,  and  he  would  effect 
nothing  ;  whereas  a  man,  full  of  fire,  and  bent  on  some 
great  end,  seems  to  have  the  art  of  converting  his  min- 
utes into  hours.  Husbanding  every  moment,  with  a 
miser's  care,  he  accomplishes,  in  those  little  fragments 
of  leisure,  which  most  men  think  nothing  of  w^asting, 
works  that  might  seem  to  have  required  years.  And 
perhaps  they  did  require  years,  for  minutes,  multiplied, 
swell  at  last  into  years  ;  and  many  a  one,  whose  apolo- 
gy it  is,  that  he  lost  only  a  moment  here,  and  a  moment 
there,  will  at  length  find,  when  he  reaches  the  age  of 
fifty  or  sixty,  that  these  little  moments  have  expanded 
into  years,  long  years,  which  stand  a  melancholy  blank 
in  the  history  of  his  life.  It  is  related  of  the  celebra 
ted  Madame  Campan,  that  she  composed  one  or  more 
of  those  works,  which  have  been  so  popular,  during  the 
brief  intervals  which  were  accustomed  to  elapse  between 
the  moment  of  her  obeying  the  summons  to  dinner  and 
that  of  sitting  down  at  table.  Lord  Brougham,  whose 
labors  present  such  a  miracle  to  the  scholar  of  these 
degenerate  days ;  who,  in  addition  to  his  cares  and  la- 
bors in  the  courts  and  in  parliament,  sufficient  of  them- 
selves to  overwhelm  ordinary  men,  finds  time  to  master 
all  the  discoveries  of  modern  science ;    to  take  place 


IMPORTANCE   OF   SCIENCE  TO  THE  MECHANIC.      313 

liimself  in  the  very  front  rank  of  writers  and  inquirers ; 
nay,  to  write  books  on  natural  theology  ;  who  can  be 
seen  at  one  hour,  probing  the  abuses  in  the  public  char- 
ities of  the  country ;  at  the  next,  investigating  the  state 
of  popular  education,  and  giving  to  that  education  new 
impulse  ;  and,  perhaps,  before  the  daj  closes,  bestow- 
ing a  last  revision  on  some  work  designed  for  the  in- 
struction or  entertainment  of  the  common  people  ;  this 
man  tells  us,  as  the  secret  of  his  labors,  tliat  he  has 
icork  cut  out  for  every  moment,  and  that  he  never 
'postpones  for  an  hour  tvhat  can  he  done  now.  And 
another  name,*  associated  with,  or  rather,  under  Provi- 
dence, the  source  and  strength  of,  one  of  the  greatest 
religious  movements  recorded  in  history,  a  name  which 
will  ever  be  quoted  as  an  example  of  energy  and  moral 
power, — can  hardly  be  recalled,  without  thinking  of  that 
favorite  motto  of  his, — always  in  haste,  but  never  in  a 
hurry. 

Here,  then,  is  the  way  in  which  you  can  make  time 
for  the  pursuit  of  knowledge.  It  is  by  gathering  up  the 
fragments,  that  nothing  be  lost ;  by  hoarding  them  with 
a  frugal  care,  or  rather  by  spending  them  with  a  prov- 
ident liberality,  in  laying  up  stores  of  useful  science, 
vvhicii,  at  some  future  day,  will  repay  you  a  hundred- 
fold. Consider,  for  a  moment,  what  these  fragments 
amount  to,  in  a  year.  It  will  be  admitted,  I  presume, 
that,  after  meeting  all  the  claims  of  your  business,  your 
family,  your  health,  and  your  religion,  you  can  still  save, 
out  of  every  day,  in  "  ftdd  ends"  of  time,  nearly,  if  not 
quite,  two  hours,  which  is  about  one  eighth  of  all  the 
hours  not  spent  in  sleep.  Thus,  one  eighth  of  the 
whole  of  life  may  be  devoted  to  intellectual  improve- 
ment ;  amounting  (should  a  man  live  to  the  age  of 
three  score)  to  almost  eight  entire  years.  And  is  that 
all  ?  Far  from  it.  These  brief  intervals  for  study, 
recurring  each  day  and  several  times  a  day,  will,  if 
improved,    supply    constant    materials    for    interesting 

*  John  Wesley. 

27  s.  A. 


314  APPENDIX. 

thought,  during  your  hours  of  labor ;  so  that  not  only 
may  knowledge  be  acquired,  while  you  are  poring  over 
books ;  but  that  knowledge  can  be  digested  and  incor- 
porated with  the  very  substance  of  the  mind,  while  you 
are  at  work  ;  nay,  can  actually  be  amplified  and  en- 
riched by  the  new  applications  and  illustrations  which 
will  be  suggested  by  your  pursuits,  or  by  intercourse 
with  others. 

And  to  this,  be  it  observed,  the  present  state  of  the 
arts  is  eminently  conducive.  That  division  of  labor, 
which  is  often  adverted  to,  as  one  of  the  distinguishing 
features  of  modern  industry,  and  which  has  found  its 
way  into  every  kind  of  mechanical  labor,  is  not  more 
favorable  to  the  production  and  perfecting  of  material 
fabrics,  than  it  is,  when  properly  improved,  to  the  cul- 
tivation and  elevation  of  the  human  mind.  It  is  often 
objected  to  such  division,  that,  by  simplifying  labor,  and 
superseding,  in  consequence,  much  of  the  thought  and 
care  formerly  necessary,  it  tends  to  degrade  the  artisan 
into  a  mere  machine.  And  so  it  does,  if  the  artisan 
chooses  to  be  degraded ;  chooses  to  spend  the  leisure, 
tiius  given  him,  in  a  state  of  mere  mental  vacancy.  But 
why  should  he  not  consider  it  as  a  precious  gift  from 
heaven ;  as  so  much  time  rescued  from  toil,  and  de- 
signed for  intellectual  and  moral  improvement?  To 
the  reflecting  and  philanthropic  mind,  this  is  the  high- 
est end  of  all  those  grand  inventions,  devised  by  mod- 
ern genius,  to  abridge,  or  supersede,  human  labor. 
They  are  not  intended,  by  Pro\^idence,  simply  to  pour 
wealth  into  the  coffers  of  the  few,  nor  even  to  augment 
the  merely  physical  enjoyments  of  the  many.  Their 
aim,  rather  and  above  all,  is,  to  redeem  a  large  portion 
of  that  time  which  has  hitherto  been  given  to  exhaust- 
ing labor ;  but  which,  henceforth,  can  and  should  be 
devoted  to  elevating  the  intellectual,  moral,  and  relig- 
ious condition  of  the  workman. 

Viewing  the  subject  in  this  light,  I  think  I  do  not 
exaggerate,  when  I  say,  that  a  mechanic,  in  these  days, 
may,  in  effect,  devote  nearly  one  quarter  of  his  time  to 


IMPORTANCE  OF  SCIENCE  TO  THE  MECHANIC.      315 

mental  improvement ;  or,  which  is  the  same  tiling,  lie 
may,  in  the  course  of  an  ordinary  life,  save,  for  this  best 
and  most  important  of  all  purposes,  the  entire  space  of 
twelve  or  fifteen  years,  which,  as  usually  spent,  is  worse 
than  wasted.  And  ivhat  facilities  does  he  not  enjoy, 
for  the  profitable  employment  of  those  years.  Good 
books  have  become  so  abundant  and  cheap,  that  a  man 
of  very  limited  means  can  still  possess  himself  of  a  vast 
fund  of  knowledge  ;  in  addition  to  which,  public  libra- 
ries arc  now  so  richly  furnished,  and  are  conducted  on 
such  liberal  principles,  that  there  is  hardly  any  thing 
useful  in  science,  or  elegant  in  literature,  to  which  the 
youthful  student  may  not  have  access, — I  had  almost 
said,  without  money  and  without  price.  And  this 
knowledge  has,  in  modern  works,  been  studiously 
adapted  to  the  unlearned  ;  is  in  many  instances  illus- 
trated for  the  special  benefit  of  the  mechanic  and  the 
laboring  man  ;  and  is  rendered  equally  attractive  and 
simple,  by  means  of  anecdotes,  engravings,  and  maps. 
In  addition  to  all  this,  the  mechanic  is  invited  to  lec- 
tures, which,  though  they  may  not  be  sufficient  to  in- 
struct him  fully  on  any  subject,  arc  yet  most  useful  in 
awakening  a  spirit  of  inquiry  ;  in  spreading  before  him 
an  outline  of  the  ground  over  which  he  ought  to  travel ; 
and  in  supplying  him  with  hints,  for  the  direction  of  his 
route.  And  all  these,  be  it  remembered,  are  means 
and  appliances  offered  only  to  the  modern  inquirer. 
In  the  days  of  Franklin  and  Rittenhouse,  and  those 
other  self-made  men  to  whom  I  iiave  referred,  books 
were  scarce  ;  public  lectures  unknown  ;  and  public  libra- 
ries as  barren  as  they  were  rare.  Is  it  too  much,  then, 
to  ask  of  the  young  men  of  our  day,  that,  enjoying  as 
they  do,  more  of  leisure  and  immeasurably  greater  fa- 
cilities for  improvement,  they  should  at  least  endeavor 
to  emulate  such  bright  examples? 

But,  in  the  second  place,  tvhy  should  the  mechanic 
and  laborer  acquire  this  knowledge  ?  Such  a  question 
may  seem  strange  and  superfluous  at  this  day  ;  and  yet 
I  fear  that  even  now,  and  notwithstanding  all  we  hear 


316  APPENDIX. 

of  the  diftusion  of  useful  knowledge,  it  is  often  asked. 
Many  persons  seem,  I  had  almost  said,  alarmed,  when 
we  speak  of  educating  more  highly  the  laboring  class- 
es ;  and  are  constantly  telling  us,  in  the  famous  words 
of  Pope,  that  a  •■  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing," 
and  that  the  smattering  which  we  can  give  our  young 
men  will  only  fill  them  with  self-conceit,  and  make  them 
despise  their  business.  To  all  this,  I  say,  in  reply,  that 
a  little  learning  is  not  what  we  propose  to  give  them  ; 
we  mean  to  give  them  a  great  deal.  Yes,  I  say  it  de- 
liberately, a  great  deal,  as  measured  by  any  standard, 
known  to  the  author  of  the  celebrated  and  much  abused 
maxim,  to  which  I  have  just  referred.  It  must  be  re- 
membered, that,  in  the  time  of  Pope,  the  term  ••  learn- 
ing," included  little,  if  any  thing,  except  a  knowledge 
of  ancient  languages  and  literature,  and  an  acquaintance 
with  history  and  poetry.  What  in  the  true  sense  con- 
stitutes knowledge, — that  knowledge  which  is  emphat- 
icallv  power, — which  reveals  to  a  man  the  constitution 
of  the  external  world,  and  of  his  own  frame,  and  of 
civil  societv,  and  gives  him  power  with  respect  to  them 
all,  that  knowledge  was,  in  Pope's  time,  most  of  it,  un- 
discovered. Where,  for  example,  in  those  days,  was 
chemistrv,  with  all  the  power  which  it  gives  us  in 
bleaching,  dyeing,  tanning,  sugar-refining,  dec.  dec. 
Where  was  the  philosophy  of  steam,  of  electricity,  and 
'galvanism,  of  the  true  functions  of  our  muscular  and 
nervous  organization,  of  botany  and  geology,  with  all 
the  control  which  these  give  us,  over  the  operations  of 
Nature,  and  the  workings  of  our  own  system.  These 
things  have  not  only  been  discovered,  but  they  have 
been  explained  and  simplified,  till  the  highest  and  most 
prolific  elements  of  science  are  brought  down  to  the 
understanding  of  a  child,  and  the  humblest  man  may 
now  possess  himself  of  knowledge,  transcending  any 
thing  ever  dreamed  of  in  the  philosophy  even  of  a 
Newton  or  a  Boyle.  What  we  are  able  to  teach  the 
practical  man  may  be  little  as  compared  with  the  om- 
niscience of  the  Deity,  or  as  compared  with  the  science 


IMPORTANCE   OF   SCIENCE  TO  THE  MECHANIC.      317 

of  him  who  devotes  all  his  hours  to  study  ;  but,  as  com- 
pared with  any  knowledge,  susceptible  of  direct  and 
productive  api)lication  to  the  pursuits  of  a  mechanic, 
which  was  possessed  even  by  Pope  himself,  or  which  he 
could  have  acquired,  though  he  had  drunk  so  deeply 
of  the  '  Pierian  spring,'  as  to  drink  it  out,  we  are  not 
afraid  to  say,  that  what  we  propose  to  teach  is  great. 
But,  waiving  this  point,  and  admitting  that  the 
knowledge  which  can  be  acquired  by  these  young  men 
is  in  every  sense  lilfle,  we  deny  that  there  is  any  dan- 
ger even  in  a  little  learning.  On  the  contrary,  we 
maintain  that  a  man  is  a  safer  citizen  and  a  more  use- 
ful neighbor,  knowing  something,  be  that  something 
ever  so  small,  than  knowing  nothing ;  and  that  just  as 
you  increase  his  stock  of  information,  provided  it  be 
innocently  employed,  you  in  the  same  proportion  ren- 
der him  a  better  and  a  happier  man.  Pope,  it  is  tru6, 
assures  us,  that  shallow  draughts  intoxicate  the  brain, 
meaning,  I  suppose,  in  the  language  of  the  modern  ob- 
jection, that  tliey  inspire  vanity,  and  fill  the  mind  with 
I  disgust  for  business.  But  I  imagine,  that  they,  whose 
brains  are  so  constituted,  that  they  would  be  intoxica- 
ted by  shallow  draughts,  would  hardly  be  sobered  again, 
by  following  the  poet's  direction,  and  "  drinking  deep- 
ly." A  vain  mind  will  be  vain  of  its  learning,  whether 
it  be  much  or  little,  just  as  it  will  be  vain  of  any  other 
possession.  It  should  be  considered,  too,  that  a  man's^ 
acquirements  will  never  inspire  vanity,  except  when 
they  serve  to  elevate  him  above  his  associates.  If  we 
proposed  to  instruct  only  a  few  mechanics,  to  institute, 
in  this  respect,  a  distinction  between  them,  we  might, 
perhaps,  awaken  their  pride.  But  our  wish  is  to  place 
all,  in  this  respect,  on  the  same  level ;  to  make  knowl- 
edge perfectly  universal,  to  have  it  considered  among 
the  necessaries  of  life ;  so  that  a  young  man  shall  no 
more  thirtk  of  growing  old  without  it,  than  without 
clothes  or  food,  and  shall  as  soon  boast,  that  he  has  rai- 
ment or  a  roof  to  cover  him,  as  that  he  has  that  which 

is  but  the  raiment  and  the  shelter  of  his  nobler  part. 

07  # 


318  APPENDIX. 

And  with  respect  to  their  business,  is  it  true,  that  the 
knowledge,  which  we  exhort  young  mechanics  to  ac- 
quire, will  disqualify  them  for  it,  or  make  it  the  object 
of  their  contempt  ?  The  simple  purpose  of  tiiat  knowl- 
edge is,  to  awaken,  inform,  and  invigorate,  the  mental 
faculties  ;  and  those  faculties  are  the  very  means  by 
which  they  are  to  transact  business,  and  do  all  their  or- 
dinary duties.  Does  walking,  in  which  you  use  pre- 
cisely the  same  bones,  and  tendons,  and  muscles,  as  in 
running,  disqualify  you  for  running?  Or  does  eating 
food,  by  which  you  apply  to  the  several  parts  of  your 
system  a  healthy  stimulus  and  nourishment,  incapaci- 
tate those  parts  from  performing  their  appropriate  func- 
tions ?  As  little,  then,  will  studies,  which  tend  to 
enlighten  and  strengthen  the  mind,  serve  to  incapaci- 
tate that  mind  for  the  discharge  of  its  accustomed  and 
proper  vocation. 

While  adverting  to  this  objection,  however,  I  cannot 
deny,  that  an  error  prevails  among  young  men  them- 
selves, which  lends  it  some  color.  When  they  first 
conceive  the  desire  for  knowledge,  they  are  too  ready 
to  imagine  that  their  usual  pursuits  afford  no  adequate 
opportunity  for  indulging  it ;  and  that,  even  were  it 
otherwise,  still  there  is  not  to  be  found,  in  such  pursuits, 
the  requisite  scope  for  the  application  of  learning,  or 
the  exercise  of  talent.  Hence,  the  disposition,  so  gen- 
erally evinced  by  young  men  wlio  become  attached  to 
study,  to  abandon  agricultural  and  m.echanical  employ- 
ments, and  to  embrace  what  are  usually  termed  the 
learned  professions.  This  disposition  I  would  by  no 
means  condemn,  indiscriminately.  There  are  cases, 
doubtless,  in  w'hich  a  solemn  sense  of  duty  prompts  the 
step ;  and  the  Church  of  Christ,  or  the  bar,  or  the  med- 
ical faculty,  gain  by  it  a  rich  accession  of  talent  and 
zeal.  But  a  mechanic  or  farmer,  no  less  than  other 
men,  has  occasion  for  the  exercise  of  the  most  gifted 
and  cultivated  powers.  He  is  not  merely  a  mechanic 
who  is  to  supply  the  wants  of  his  customers,  and  accu- 
mulate wealth.     He  is  a  parent,  who  is  to  train  up  his 


13JP0RTANCE   OF   SCIEXCn  TO  THE  MECHANIC.      319 

children  to  excellence,  and  who  needs,  for  this  task,  the 
most  varied  and  thorough  knowledge.  He  is  a  citi- 
zen, having  important  civil  duties,  all  of  which  require 
knowledge,  and  in  the  discharge  of  which,  he,  of  all 
men,  may  exercise,  if  li^  have  talent,  a  commanding 
and  most  salutary  influence.  He  is,  above  all,  a  man, 
having  afiections,  to  be  chastened  and  refined  ;  a  taste, 
to  be  cultivated  ;  a  mental  and  moral  vision,  to  be  en- 
larged ;  and  a  soul,  to  be  fitted,  by  the  exercise  of  holy 
thought,  for  honor  and  immortality. 

And  even  as  mechanics,  will  not  your  business  af- 
ford you  room  for  applying  your  knowledge,  and  exer- 
cising your  abilities  ?  The  results,  at  which  you  aim, 
in  the  mechanic  arts,  are  brought  about,  not  bv  your 
muscular  strength  so  much  as  by  your  knowledge  and 
skill.  The  real  and  eflTective  agents,  by  whicli  you 
work,  are  the  powers  of  Xature,  her  affinities,  her  at- 
tractions, her  all-absorbing  energies  of  heat  and  gravity. 
Your  office  is  confined  to  a  proper  disposition  and  wise 
control  of  these  powers.  And  in  that  high  office,  ex- 
alted enough,  methinks,  to  satisfy  the  most  aspiring 
mind,  how  much  might  science  aid  you  ?  Is  it  not,  in 
truth,  by  her  guidance  alone,  that  you  can  be  conduct- 
ed to  an  adequate  acquaintance  with  the  principles  and 
processes  of  your  business  ?  Experience,  we  are  aware 
can  teach  you  much  }  and  much,  too,  vou  can  learn  from 
the  instructions  and  example  of  the  master-workmen  in 
your  trade.  But  still  these  are  not  adequate  to  give 
you  tliat  complete,  systematic,  and  thorough,  knowl- 
edge, which  is  essential  to  your  highest  success.  You 
would  scarcely  be  satisfied  with  a  physician,  who 
knew  nothing  of  the  human  body,  but  what  he  had 
learned  from  the  conversation  of  his  master,  and  by  ex- 
perimenting on  his  patients.  You  require  hin)  to  have 
regularly  studied  the  principles  of  his  art ;  to  have  ad- 
ded to  his  own  experience,  and  that  of  his  immediate 
instructer,  that  immense  mass  of  experience  which  is 
treasured  up  in  books.  Shall  it  be  deemed  unreasona- 
ble, then,  that  we  ask  a  similar  course  from  you  ?     In- 


320  APPENDIX. 

deed,  does  not  your  interest,  no  less  than  consistency, 
demand,  that,  in  connexion  witii  those  labors  of  the 
shop,  in  which  you  train  your  eye  to  observe,  and  your 
hand  to  guide,  the  processes  of  your  art,  you  study  also 
the  principles  of  that  art, — principles  which  must  always 
control  such  processes,  and  disregarding  which,  tiicy 
must  inevitably  fail.  Yes,  let  it  not  be  forgotten,  that 
complete  success  in  the  mechanic  arts  can  be  secured 
only  by  knowledge ;  and  that  the  knowledge,  which  is 
alone  equal  to  your  wants,  is  that  knowledge  which 
combines,  with  individual  experience,  the  collective  and 
generalized  experience  of  all  who  have  labored  and  ob- 
served in  the  same  sphere. 

How,  for  example,  without  that  knowledge,  can  you 
provide  for  the  unexpected  emergencies,  which  await 
every  mechanic  in  the  prosecution  of  his  business ' 
From  the  state  of  your  instruments  and  materials,  or 
from  the  demands  of  your  employers,  will  arise  frequent 
difficulties,  which  you  have  never  yet  experienced ;  for 
which  no  directions  can  be  found  in  those  guides  called 
'Assistants,'  'Companions,'  &-c.,  and  the  provision  for 
which,  therefore,  must  be  found,  if  found  at  all,  in  the 
resources  of  your  own  mind.  But  to  what,  I  ask,  will 
his  resources  amount,  who  knows  nothing  of  first  prin- 
ciples ;  who  has  never  been  accustomed  to  reflect  on 
the  operations  in  which  he  is  engaged ;  and  who,  if  he 
undertakes  now,  for  the  first  time,  to  do  it,  will  be  al- 
most certain  to  stumble  ? 

Consider,  too,  that,  if  ignorant  of  the  natural  laws 
which  govern  your  processes,  you  are  not  prepared  to 
appreciate  the  inventions  and  alleged  improvements 
which  multiply,  with  such  astonishing  rapidity,  in  ev- 
ery branch  of  manufactures ;  and  which  you  are  con- 
stantly u-ged  to  adopt.  Some  of  them  are  doubtless 
of  great  value,  while  many  more  are  destined  no  less 
certainly  to  follow  their  predecessors,  in  a  brief  though 
noisy  career,  to  the  land  of  forgetfulness.  Now,  who 
can  hope  to  discriminate  between  the  meritorious  and 
the  worthless, — between  the  inferior  and  the  superior, — 


IMPORTANCE  OF  SCIENCE  TO  THE  MECHANIC.      321 

but  he  who  has  quahfied  himself  to  look  beyond  the 
promises  of  interested  projectors,  and  the  certificates 
of  incompetent  or  inconsiderate  witnesses,  and  to  test 
the  principles  involved  by  the  unalterable  laws  of  the 
Creator  ? 

Consider,  also,  that  an  artisan  or  manufacturer  must 
have  a  knowledge  of  the  theory  and  principles  of  his 
business,  if  he  would  himself  become  its  improver  and 
benefactor  ;  if  he  would  be  remembered  as  the  honored 
inventor  of  some  cheaper,  simpler,  or  more  certain,  in- 
strument, or  process.  That  thousands  upon  thousands 
of  such  instruments  and  processes  are  still  undiscovered^ 
and  that  they  lie  within  the  reach  of  every  enterprising 
and  competent  artisan,  is  certain  ;  but  it  is  equally  cer- 
tain, that  he  alone  is  competent  to  the  high  task  of  thus 
adding  to  the  resources  of  his  race,  who  has  knowl- 
edge. Rarely,  very  rarely,  indeed,  does  the  uninstruct- 
ed  and  unreflecting  mechanic  compass  any  great  and 
lasting  improvement. 

Common  sense,  as  well  as  the  history  of  the  arts, 
would  teach  us,  that,  when  such  men  attempt  to  inno- 
vate, it  will  generally  be  in  quest  of  some  impracticable 
end,  like  perpetual  motion  ;  or  by  means  totally  inade- 
quate to  the  object  proposed ;  or  for  the  mere  purpose 
of  reinventing,  in  interior  forms,  instruments  which  are 
already  in  existence  ?  And  even  when  they  do  prose- 
cute an  attainable  and  important  end,  with  skill  and 
apparent  success,  how  often  are  they  arrested  and  de- 
layed, if  not  defeated,  from  being  unable  to  solve  the 
incidental  or  collateral  questions,  which  start  up  in  the 
progress  of  their  work.  Even  Fulton,  with  all  his  knowl- 
edge and  skill,  is  said  to  have  been  delayed,  several 
months,  in  the  completion  of  his  great  experiment,  for 
want  of  the  requisite  knowledge  of  the  theory  of  resist- 
ing fluids.  \V  hittemore's  card-machine,  and  Perkins's 
nail-engine,  were  both  long  delayed,  one  of  them  for 
years,  and  were  the  source  (as  we  are  informed*)  of 

*  See  Judge  Story's  Discourse  before  the  Mechanics'  Institute  of 
Boston,  1831. 


322  APPENDIX. 

infinite  vexation  to  their  authors,  simply  from  the  want 
of  an  adequate  acquaintance  with  the  principles  of  me- 
chanics. Indeed,  I  ask.  where  and  wlien  any  great  in- 
vention was  perfected,  without  the  aid  of  knowledge, 
and  of  profound  thought  ?  These  creations  of  human 
genius  are  not  struck  off,  as  is  generally  supposed,  at  a 
single  heat,  or  at  random.  They  are  not  the  offspring 
of  some  happy  accident,  nor  the  almost  inspired  guess 
of  ignorant,  unreflecting  minds.  Xo :  these  may  give 
the  first  hint ;  but  it  is  the  province  of  knowledge  and 
thought  to  seize  that  hint,  and  carry  it  out  to  its  results  ; 
to  disengage  it  from  the  mass  of  surrounding  error,  and 
to  clear  away  the  difficulties  and  doubts  which  always 
beset  unexplored  paths.  Who  will  tell  me.  that  James 
Wattj  or  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  or  Sir  Richard  Ark- 
wright,  or  Reuben  Whitney,  or  Robert  Fulton,  project- 
ed and  invented  without  knowledge,  without  science  ? 
Who  will  tell  me,  that  your  own  Brewster,*  unedu- 
cated though  he  was,  ever  brought  his  instruments  to 
perfection,  without  intense  and  long-continued  study ; 
without  retiring  from  the  din  of  business  and  the  dis- 
tractions of  society,  and  burying  himself  in  the  sofitude 
of  his  chamber  ?  Who  does  not  know  how  glad  he  was 
to  call  in  the  aid  of  books  ;  how  much  he  had  derived 
from  the  society  and  instructions  of  able  friends:  and 
how  constantly  he  wrs  driven,  for  the  want  of  acquired 
science,  to  task  the  powers  of  his  own  prohfic  and  orig- 
inal mind  ?  AVho  ever  heard  him  depreciate  a  liberal 
acquaintance  with  science  and  literature  ;  and  who  does 
not  sympathize  in  the  conviction  felt,  I  am  told,  so  deep- 
ly, by  his  friends  and  by  himself,  that  he  wanted  but 
the  power,  which  science  would  have  given  him,  to 
have  added  a  long  and  ever-memorable  list  to  those 
inventions,  which  now  stand  associated  with  his  cher- 
ished memory? 

*  The  late  Gilbert  Brewster,  of  Poughkeepsie,  a  man  of  equal  in- 
genuity and  wortli  ;  who,  by  his  invention  of  the  Eclipse  Speeder, 
and  other  improvements  in  cotton  machinery,  rendered  important 
service  to  the  manufacturing  industry  of  his  country. 


IMPORTANCE  OF   SCIENCE  TO  THE  MECHANIC.      323 

In  addition,  however,  to  these  practical  advantages, 
which  would  accrue  to  the  artisan,  from  a  knowledge 
of  the  principles  of  iiis  art,  there  are  others,  of  a  moral 
and  intellectual  character,  wliich  are  entitled  to  at  least 
a  passing  notice.  The  habit  of  studying  the  theory, 
as  well  as  the  practice,  of  an  art,  cannot  but  have  the 
happiest  influence  in  enlarging  and  liberalizing  the 
mind.  It  leads  the  artisan  to  regard  his  occupation  as 
something  more  than  meclianical  drudgery  ;  as  a  liber- 
al and  intellectual  pursuit,  fitted  to  exercise  the  powers 
of  his  mind,  and  to  raise  his  thouglits  from  tlie  humble 
workmanship  of  man  to  that  vaster  mechanism,  which 
bespeaks  tiie  wisdom  and  power  of  the  Almighty.  It 
affords  unfailing  topics  for  reflection  and  conversation, 
during  his  hours  of  labor,  and  provides  resources,  of  an 
mtellectual  character,  on  which  lie  can  draw,  in  seasons 
of  leisure,  and  at  the  advance  of  old  age.  It  seems,  in- 
deed, higli  time  that  the  years  which  have  hitherto  been 
employed  by  the  apprentice,  in  learning  the  mere  han- 
dicraft of  his  art,  should  be  employed,  in  part  at  least, 
in  studying  its  principles,  and  in  tracing  the  operation 
of  those  princii)les,  throughout  the  works  of  Nature. 
It  is  more  than  time,  that  a  higher  moral  and  intellec- 
tual taste  should  be  cultivated  among  the  artisans  of 
every  country ;  and  that  hours,  now  wasted  in  dissi- 
pation, or  frittered  away  in  frivolous  reading  and  con- 
versation, should  be  devoted  to  tlie  acquisition  of 
knowledge,  and  the  cultivation  of  virtue.  In  an  age 
like  this,  when  every  species  of  manual  labor  is  render- 
ed more  and  more  precarious  by  the  changes  which 
are  perpetually  taking  place  in  the  arts,  it  is  the  obvi- 
ous interest  of  the  laboring  man  to  prepare  himself,  by 
reading  and  reflection,  either  to  embrace  a  new  employ- 
ment, or  to  conform  himself  to  sudden  and  unexpected 
vicissitudes.  Independent,  however,  of  interest,  there 
are  other  and  higher  considerations,  whicli  address  him 
as  an  intelligent  and  immortal  being,  and  which  urge 
him  to  embrace  tlie  opportunities  of  improvement,  which 
have  been  vouchsafed  him,  by  a  kind  Providence,  even 
in  his  ordinary  avocations. 


324  APPENDIX. 

I  have  thus  dwelt,  on  the  benefits  to  be  derived  by 
mechanics  from  liberal  and  scientific  studies.  All  my 
remarks  are  but  a  commentary  on  tlie  celebrated  max- 
im of  Lord  Bacon,  that  knowlkdge  is  power  ;  and  let 
me  add,  that,  for  the  human  race,  there  is  no  other  pow- 
er. Inferior  animals  are  guided  in  their  labors  by  a 
blind  but  unerring  instinct ;  and  hence,  though  desti- 
tute of  knowledge,  they  build  up  works  of  surpassing 
beauty  and  utility.  But  man  comes  into  being,  almost 
utterly  destitute  of  instinctive  skill.  Xearly  all  his  ca- 
pability is  the  slow  growth  of  etlbrt,  of  prudence,  avail- 
ing itself  of  past  error,  of  study,  exploring  the  nature 
and  properties  of  the  material  and  immaterial  objects 
around  him.  In  books  is  stored  away  the  fruit  of  the 
experience  and  study  of  those  who  have  gone  before 
us ;  and  it  is  in  that  storehouse  that  you  are  to  gather 
power  for  the  discharge  of  the  high  trusts,  which  have 
been  committed  to  your  hands.  Left  to  your  own  un- 
aided researches,  you  would  learn  little  of  the  world  on 
which  we  all  enter,  strangers ;  and  you  would  fall  an 
easy  prev  to  its  thousand  danerers  and  deceptions.  But 
when,  with  your  own  observations,  you  combine  the  ac- 
cumulated wisdom  of  ages  ;  and  when  this  wisdom  has 
become  your  own,  by  patient  reading  and  reflection,  you 
will,  indeed,  have  power.  You  will  have  power  over 
the  refractory  substances  on  which  you  are  called  to 
labor,  and  will  cause  them  to  bend  to  your  will  with  an 
almost  ma2:ical  celerity.  You  will  have  power  even 
over  future  events,  for  you  will  be  prepared  to  antici- 
pate their  nature,  to  prepare  for  their  approach,  and  to 
employ  them  as  harmless  contributors  to  your  advancer 
ment.  You  vrill  have  power,  too,  over  the  minds  with 
which  vou  associate,  since  you  will  know  the  motives 
that  sway,  and  the  prejudices  that  pervert,  and  the  high 
aspirations  that  warm,  them  ;  aspirations,  which,  though 
now  stifled  by  worldly  pursuits,  are  yet  susceptible  of 
being  roused  into  vigorous  and  beneficent  exercise. 
And  above  all,  you  may,  by  a  proper  improvement  of 
the  means  with  which  vou  are  intrusted,  secure  that  no- 


PROGRESS   OF   AGRICULTURE.  325 

blest  of  all  power, — power  over  yourselves.  By  habits 
of  thought  and  application,  you  can  gain  the  command 
of  your  intellectual  forces,  and  can  direct  them,  all  dis- 
ciplined and  ready  for  action,  to  any  required  point. 
Any  may  I  not  hope,  that,  by  the  due  examination  of 
your  own  hearts,  and  of  the  moral  relations  in  which 
you  stand,  you  will,  with  the  aid  of  God's  blessing,  be 
animated  to  the  pursuit  of  that  yet  higher  dominion 
over  appetite  and  passion,  which  constitutes  the  perfec- 
tion of  our  being,  and  for  which  there  is  reserved  a 
crown  of  eternal  and  unfading  brightness. 


V.     Page  121. 

PROGRESS   OF   ENGLISH   AND   AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE. 

Improvement  slow. — Considering,  says  ]\Ir.  McCul- 
loch.  the  wonderful  facilities  of  communication  that  exist 
in  Great  Britain,  and  the  universal  diffusion  of  informa- 
tion, by  means  of  the  press,  the  slowness  with  which 
agricultural  improvements  make  their  way  is  not  a  little 
surprising.  Mr.  Harte  mentions,  that,  when  he  was  a 
youtli,  he  heard  Jethro  Tull  declare,  that,  though  he 
had  introduced  turnips  into  the  field  in  King  William's 
reign,  with  little  trouble  or  expense,  and  great  success, 
the  practice  did  not  travel  beyond  the  hedges  of  his 
own  estate  till  after  the  peace  of  Utrecht. — (Essays,  ii., 
page  223.)  It  might,  one  should  think,  be  reasonably 
enough  supposed,  that  improved  practices  would  now  be 
much  more  rapidly  difl'used  ;  but  experience  shows  that 
this  is  not  really  the  case.  "  What  is  well  known  and 
systematically  practised,  in  one  county,  is  frequently  un- 
known, or  utterly  disregarded,  in  the  adjacent  districts; 
and  what  is  to  every  unprejudiced  observer  evidently 
erroneous,  and  injurious  to  the  land,  is,  in  some  quar- 
ters, persisted  in,  most  pertinaciously,  tliough  a  journey 
of  not  many  miles  would  open  to  the  view  the  beneficial 
23  s.  A. 


326  APPEN-DIX. 

effects  of  a  contrary  practice."'*  In  a  large  portion  of 
England  there  is  no  regular  alternation  of  corn  and 
green  crops  ;  and  in  many  counties,  the  drill  husbandry 
has  hardly  obtained  any  footing. 

Notwithstanding,  too,  that  the  best-cultivated  lands 
in  Xorthumberland,  Norfolk,  and  the  Lothians,  are  all 
ploughed  by  two  horses,  nothing  is  more  common,  as 
already  stated,  than  to  see,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  me- 
tropolis, and  throughout  most  parts  of  the  south  and 
west  of  England,  three,  four,  and  still  more  frequently, 
five,  horses,  yoked  in  line  to  a  plough,  even  where  the 
soil  is  light  and  sandy  I  And,  as  a  driver  is  always 
necessary  when  there  are  more  than  two  horses,  at  least 
double  the  labor  is  expended  on  ploughing,  where  this 
barbarous  practice  is  followed,  that  is  required  where  it 
is  abandoned. 

There  is  a  much  greater  aversion  to  precipitate 
changes,  and  a  more  resolute  adherence  to  whatever 
has  been  long  practised,  among  farmers,  than  among 
any  other  class  of  persons.  "  Improvements,  which 
effect  material  changes  in  established  customs,  have, 
under  all  circumstances  and  in  all  countries,  ever  been 
sloAvly  and  reluctantly  admitted.  It  requires  no  little 
effort  to  quit  the  common  routine  of  practice,  and  still 
more  to  rehnquish  long-maintained  opinions. 

•'•  The  general  circumstances  affecting  agriculture  are, 
moreover,  little  favorable  to  great,  and,  more  especially, 
sudden,  alterations.  The  farmer  is  not  so  much  within 
reach  of  information,  as  the  merchant  and  manufac- 
turer ;  he  has  not,  like  those  who  reside  in  towns,  the 
means  of  ready  intercourse,  and  constant  communica- 
tion, with  others  engaged  in  the  same  occupation.  He 
lives  retired ;  his  acquaintance  is  limited,  and  but  little 
valued ;  and,  unless  in  the  habit  of  reading,  he  is  little 
likely  to  acquire  any  other  knowledge  of  his  art,  than 
v/hat  is  traditionary,  what  is  transmitted  from  father  to 
son,  and  limited,  in  its  application,  to  his  own  immedi- 
ate neighborhood." 

*  Grainger  and  Kennedy,  on  Tillage. 


PROGRESS  OF  AGRICULTURE.  327 

Agriculture,  and  all  sorts  of  industrious  pursuits,  were 
kept  in  a  peculiarly  backward  state,  in  England,  till  after 
the  accession  of  Henry  the  Seventh,  A.  D.  1485.  This 
arose,  partly  from  the  destructive  contests  that  grew  out 
of  the  wild  efforts  of  the  Norman  monarchs  to  conquer 
France,  and  the  civil  wars  by  which  they  were  succeed- 
ed ;  and  partly  from  the  abuses  produced  by  tiie  feudal 
system,  and  the  enslaved  and  dci)ressed  state  of  the  cul- 
tivators of  the  soil.  In  Henry's  reign,  the  foundations 
were  l?pid  of  an  order  of  things  more  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  opulence,  and  the  progress  of  improvement. 

Turnips,  clover,  and  potatoes,  were  all  introduced 
into  England  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

Blythe's  '  Improver  Improved,'  published  in  1649,  is 
the  first  systematic  work,  in  which  there  arc  any  traces 
of  the  alternate  system  of  husbandry,  or  of  the  intro- 
duction of  clover,  turnips,  &.C.,  between  culmifcrous 
crops.  The  practice  did  not,  however,  make  much  pro- 
gress during  the  seventeenth  century  ;  and  thougli  it 
forms,  as  it  were,  the  very  foundation  of  good  farming, 
there  are  extensive  districts  in  which  it  is  still  very  im- 
perfectly understood,  and  but  little  followed. 

Tlie  famous  Jetln-o  Tull  was  the  first,  or  among  the 
first,  who  introduced  the  drill  husbandry  ;  and  his  work 
on  horse-hoeing  husbandry,  published  in  1731,  did  a 
vast  deal  to  recommend  the  practice  ;  though,  from  his 
undervaluing  the  iniluence  of  manure,  it  was,  in  otlier 
respects,  prejudicial. 

Stock  husbandry  has  been  more  improved,  since 
1750,  than  tillage  husbandry.  As  soon  as  Bakewell's 
system  of  breeding  began  to  be  known,  it  was  taken  up 
and  followed  by  spirited  and  judicious  farmers,  in  all 
parts  of  tlie  country.  Of  these,  Mr.  Culley,  of  North- 
umberland, was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous.  He  pub- 
lished his  '  Observations  on  Live  Stock'  in  1786 ;  and 
in  it,  the  just  principles  for  improving  the  breeds  of  do 
mestic  animals  were,  for  the  first  time,  fully  elucidated 
This  has  had  a  wonderful  influence  in  increasing  the 
supply  of  butchers'  meat.     Indeed,  the  principal  im- 


328  APPENDIX. 

provement  in  arable  husbandry, — the  general  introduc- 
tion and  superior  management  of  green  crops, — may 
be,  in  no  inconsiderable  degree,  ascribed  to  the  anxiety 
of  farmers  to  procure  an  abundant  and  suitable  supply 
of  food  for  their  stock.  The  superior  attention  paid  to 
stock  farming  may  probably  be,  to  some  extent,  at  least, 
accounted  for,  from  the  circumstance  of  tithe  pressing 
with  comparative  lightness  on  pasture  land,  while  it  falls 
with  its  full  weight  on  arable  land,  and  operates  power- 
fully to  prevent  the  outlay  of  capital  upon  it.  Bift,  how- 
ever it  may  be  accounted  for,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of 
the  fact,  that  stock  husbandry  is  now  more  advanced 
than  tillage  husbandry  ;  and  that,  in  all  that  belongs  to 
the  breeding  and  rearing  of  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and 
pigs,  the  English  are,  at  present,  superior  to  the  Scotch, 
and  to  every  other  people. 

But,  though  surpassed  by  its  kindred  branch,  the 
progress  of  arable  husbandry  in  England,  since  1760, 
and  of  the  improvements  connected  therewith,  has,  not- 
withstanding, been  great. 

Of  the  recent  improvements,  one  of  the  most  important 
has  been  the  introduction  of  bone-dust  as  a  manure.  In 
many  places,  but  particularly  in  Lincolnshire,  this  has 
occasioned  a  vast  increase  of  produce  ;  and  has  enabled 
many  extensive  tracts  to  be  brought  into  a  high  state 
of  cultivation.  There  has  been,  in  fact,  almost  every 
where,  throughout  the  country,  but  especially  in  the 
northern  counties,  a  progressive  improvement  in  agri- 
culture, effected,  partly  by  the  better  drainage  of  the 
land,  partly  by  the  adoption  of  better  rotations,  partly 
by  the  enforcem.ent  of  greater  economy  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  details,  and  partly  by  other  causes.  No 
doubt,  there  is  still,  in  many  counties,  very  great  room 
for  further  improvements  ;  but  there  has  been,  even  in 
the  most  backward,  considerable  advances  made  smce 
the  peace. 

In  proof  of  the  extraordinary  change  that  has  taken 
place,  we  may  mention,  that,  in  the  wolds  of  Lincoln- 
shire, the  crops  of  turnips  are  said  to  have  become  from 


PROGRESS   OF   AGRICULTURE.  329 

five  to  ten  times  heavier,  within  the  last  few  years,  from 
the  appHcation  of  bone  manure  to  their  culture  ;  at  the 
same  time  that  there  has  been  a  proportional  increase 
in  the  productiveness  of  the  crops !  Similar  improve- 
ments, and,  in  some  instances,  quite  as  great,  have  been 
made  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  gratifying, 
too,  to  know,  that  the  capacities  of  improvement  are 
far  from  being  any  where  exhausted.  But  what  has 
been  effected  shows  what  might  be  done,  were  the  pro- 
ductive energies  of  the  more  backward  districts  better 
developed  by  the  extension  of  the  imj)roved  practices 
of  Norfolk,  Northumberland,  Lincoln,  &c.,  to  other 
counties.  The  granting  of  leases  of  a  reasonable  length, 
and  containing  proper  conditions  as  to  management, 
and  the  abolition  or  commutation  of  tithes  for  a  fixed, 
invariable  payment,  would  be  the  most  likely  means  to 
bring  about  so  desirable  a  result.  It  is  impossible,  in- 
deed, to  say  to  what  extent,  under  such  circumstances, 
improvement  might  be  carried.  See  JMcCulloch' s  Sta- 
tistics of  Great  Britain. 

The  following  account  of  the  present  state  of  agricul- 
ture in  England  was  recently  given  by  the  Hon.  Daniel 
Webster,  in  a  speech  delivered  at  a  public  meeting  in 
Boston,  Massachusetts. 

Mr.  Webster  began  with  stating,  that  he  regarded 
agriculture  as  the  leading  interest  of  society ;  and  as 
having,  in  all  its  relations,  a  direct  and  intimate  bearing 
upon  human  comfort  and  the  national  prosperity. 

The  primary  elements,  which  enter  into  the  consid 
oration  of  the  agriculture  of  a  country,  are  four ;  cli- 
mate, soil,  price  of  land,  and  price  of  labor. 

The  climate  of  England  differs  essentially  from  tiiat 
Df  this  country.  England  is  on  the  western  side  of  the 
eastern,  and  we  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  western,  con 
tinent.  The  climate  of  each  country  is  materially  af- 
fected by  its  respective  situation  in  relation  to  the  ocean. 
The  winds  which  prevail  most,  both  in  this  country  and 
in  England,  are  from  the  west ;  it  is  known  that  the 
wind  blows,  in  our  latitudes,  from  some  point  west  to 
28* 


330  APPENDIX. 

some  point  east,  on  an  average  of  years,  nearly  or  quite 
three  days  out  of  four.  These  facts  are  familiar.  The 
consequences  resulting  from  tiiem  are,  that  our  Winters 
are  colder  and  our  Summers  much  hotter,  than  in  Eng- 
land. Our  latitude  is  about  that  of  Oporto,  yet  the 
temperature  is  very  different.  On  these  accounts,  there- 
fore, tlie  maturing  of  the  crops  in  England,  and  the  pow- 
er of  using  these  crops,  creates  a  material  difterence  be- 
tween its  agriculture  and  ours.  It  may  be  supposed, 
that  our  climate  must  resemble  that  of  China,  in  the 
same  latitudes ;  and  this  fact  may  have  an  essential 
bearing  upon  that  branch  of  agriculture  which  it  is  pro- 
posed to  introduce  among  us, — the  production  of  silk. 

The  second  point  of  difference,  between  the  two 
countries,  lies  in  the  soil.  The  soil  of  England  is  main- 
ly argillaceous  ;  a  soft  and  unctuous  loam  upon  a  sub- 
stratum of  clay.  This  may  be  considered  as  the  pre- 
dominant characteristic,  in  the  parts  which  he  visited. 
The  soil  in  some  of  the  southern  counties  of  England  is 
thinner  ;  some  of  it  is  what  we  should  call  stony  ;  much 
of  it  is  a  free  gravelly  soil,  witii  some  small  part  which, 
with  us,  would  be  called  sandy.  Through  a  great  ex- 
tent of  country,  this  soil  rests  on  a  deep  bed  of  chalk. 
Ours  is  a  granite  soil.  There  is  granite  in  Great  Brit- 
ain ;  but  this  species  of  soil  prevails  in  Scotland,  a  part 
of  the  country  which  more  resembles  our  own.  We 
may  have  lands  as  good  as  any  in  England.  Our  allu- 
vial soils  on  Connecticut  river,  and  in  some  other  parts 
of  the  country,  are  equal  to  any  lands ;  but  these  have 
not,  ordinarily,  a  wide  extent  of  clay  subsoil.  The  soil 
of  Massachusetts  is  harder,  more  granitic,  less  abound- 
ing in  clay,  and  altogether  more  stony,  than  the  soil  of 
England.  The  surface  of  Massachusetts  is  more  une- 
ven, more  broken  with  mountain  ridges,  more  diversi- 
fied with  hill  and  dale,  and  more  abundant  in  streams 
of  water,  than  that  of  England. 

The  price  of  land  in  that  country,  another  important 
element  in  agricultural  calculations,  differs  greatly  from 
the  price  of  land  with  us.  It  is  three  times  as  high  as 
in  Massachusetts,  at  least. 


PROGRESS   OF   AGRICULTURE.  331 

On  tlie  other  hand,  the  price  of  agricultural  labor 
is  much  higher  in  Massacliusetts,  than  in  England.  In 
different  i)arts  of  England,  the  price  of  labor  is  consid- 
erably various  ;  but  it  may  be  set  down  as  twice  as 
dear  with  us  here. 

These  are  the  general  remarks,  which  have  suggest- 
ed themselves  in  regard  to  the  state  of  things  abroad. 
Now,  have  we  any  thing  to  learn  from  them  ?  Is  there 
any  thing  in  the  condition  of  England,  apj)licablc  to 
ours  ;  or,  in  regard  to  which,  the  agriculture  of  Eng- 
land may  be  of  use  to  Massaclnisetts  and  other  coun- 
tries ? 

The  subject  of  agriculture  in  England  has  strongly 
attracted  the  attention  and  inquiries  of  men  of  science. 
They  have  studied  particularly  the  nature  of  the  soil. 
More  than  twenty  years  ago.  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  un- 
dertook to  treat  the  subject  of  the.  application  of  chemi- 
cal knowledge  to  agriculture,  in  the  analysis  of  soils  and 
manures.  The  same  attention  has  been  continued  to 
the  subject ;  and  tiie  extraordinary  discoveries  and  ad- 
vances in  chemical  science,  since  his  time,  are  likely  to 
operate  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  agriculture.  The 
best  results  may  be  expected  from  them.  These  inqui- 
ries are  now  prosecuted  in  France,  with  great  enthusiasm 
and  success.  We  may  hope  for  like  beneficial  results 
iicrc,  from  the  application  of  science  to  the  same  objects. 

But,  although  tlie  circumstances  of  climate  and  sit- 
uation and  nature  of  the  soil  form  permanent  distinc- 
tions, which  cannot  be  changed,  yet  tiiere  are  other  dif- 
ferences, resulting  from  different  modes  of  culture,  and 
different  forms  of  applying  labor ;  and  it  is  to  these 
differences  that  our  attention  should  be  particularly 
directed.  Here,  there  is  much  to  learn.  English  cul- 
tivation is  more  scientific,  more  systematic,  and  more 
exact,  a  great  deal,  than  ours.  This  is  partly  tiie  result 
^f  necessity.  A  vast  population  is  to  be  supported,  on 
comparatively  a  small  surface.  Lands  are  dear,  rents 
are  high,  and  hands,  as  well  as  mouths,  are  numerous. 
Careful  and  skilful  cultivation  is  the  natural  result  of 


332  APPENDIX. 

this  state  of  things.  An  Enghsh  farmer  looks  not  mere- 
ly to  the  present  year's  crop.  He  considers  what  will 
be  the  condition  of  the  land,  when  that  crop  is  oti'; 
and  what  it  will  be  fit  for,  the  next  year.  He  studies 
to  use  his  land.,  so  as  not  to  abuse  it.  On  the  contrary,, 
his  aim  is  to  get  crop  after  crop,  and  still  the  land  shall 
be  growing  better  and  better.  If  he  would  content  him- 
self with  raising  from  the  soil  a  large  crop  this  year, 
and  then  leaving  it  neglected  and  exhausted,  he  would 
starve.  It  is  upon  this  fundamental  idea,  of  constant 
production  without  exhaustion,  that  the  system  of  Eng- 
lish cultivation,  and  indeed  of  all  good  cultivation,  is 
founded.  England  is  not  original  in  this.  Flanders, 
and  perhaps  Italy,  have  been  her  teachers.  This  sys- 
tem is  carried  out  in  practice,  by  a  well-considered  ro- 
tation of  crops.  The  form,  or  manner,  of  this  rotation, 
in  a  given  case,  is  determined  very  much  by  the  value 
of  the  soil,  and  partly  by  the  local  demand  for  particu- 
lar products.  But  some  rotation,  some  succession,  some 
variation  in  the  annual  productions  of  the  same  land, 
is  essential.  Xo  tenant  could  obtain  a  lease,  or,  if  he 
should,  could  pay  his  rent  and  maintain  his  family,  who 
should  wholly  disregard  this.  White  crops  are  not  to 
follow  one  another.  White  crops  are  wheat,  barley, 
rye,  oats,  &ic.  Our  maize,  or  Indian  corn,  must  be 
considered  a  white  crop  :  although,  from  the  quantity 
of  stalk  and  leaf  which  it  produces,  and  which  are  such 
excellent  food  for  cattle,  it  is  less  exhausting  than  some 
other  white  crops  ;  or,  to  speak  more  properly,  it  makes 
greater  returns  to  the  land.  Green  crops  are  turnips, 
potatoes,  beets,  vetches,  or  tares,  (which  are  usually 
eaten  while  growing,  by  cattle  and  sheep,  or  cut  for 
green  food.)  and  clover.  Buck  or  beech  wheat,  and 
winter  oats,  thought  to  be  a  very  useful  product,  are 
regarded  also  as  green  crops,  when  eaten  on  the  land ; 
and  so.  indeed,  may  any  crop  be  considered,  which  is 
used  in  this  way.  But  the  turnip  is  the  great  green 
crop  of  England.  Its  cultivation  has  wrought  such 
changes,  in  fifty  years,  that  it  may  be  said  to  have  rev- 
olutionized Ep''^'^'^  ""riculture. 


PROGRESS   OF   AGRICULTURE.  333 

Before  that  time,  when  lands  became  exhausted,  by 
the  repetition  of  grain  crops,  they  were  left,  as  it  was 
termed,  fallow  ;  that  is,  were  not  cultivated  at  all,  but 
abandoned,  to  recruit  themselves  as  they  might.  This 
occurred  as  often  as  every  fourth  year,  so  that  one 
quarter  of  the  arable  land  was  always  out  of  cultivation, 
and  yielded  nothing.  Turnips  are  now  substituted  in 
the  place  of  these  naked  fallows  ;  and  now,  land  in  tur- 
nips is  considered  as  fallow.  What  is  the  philosophy 
of  this  ?  The  raising  of  crops,  even  of  any,  the  most 
favorable  crop,  does  not  in  itself  enrich,  but,  in  some 
degree,  exhausts  tiie  land.  The  exhaustion  of  the  land, 
however,  as  experience  and  observation  have  fully  de- 
monstrated, takes  place  mainly  when  the  seeds  of  a 
plant  are  allowed  to  perfect  themselves.  The  turnip  is 
a  biennial  plant.  It  does  not  perfect  its  seed  before  it  is 
consumed.  There  is  another  circumstance,  in  respect 
to  the  turnip  plant,  which  deserves  consideration. 

Plants,  it  is  well  understood,  derive  a  large  portion 
of  their  nutriment  from  the  air.  The  leaves  of  plants 
are  their  lungs.  The  leaves  of  turnips  expose  a  wide 
surface  to  the  atmosphere,  and  derive,  therefore,  much 
of  their  subsistence  and  nutriment  from  these  sources. 
The  broad  leaves  of  the  turnij)s  likewise  shade  the 
ground,  preserve  its  moisture,  and  prevent,  in  some 
measure,  its  exhaustion  by  the  sun  and  air. 

The  turnips  have  a  further  and  ultimate  use.  Meat 
and  clothing  come  from  animals.  The  more  animals 
are  sustained  upon  a  farm,  the  more  meat  and  the  more 
clothing.  These  things  bear,  of  course,  a  proportion  to 
the  number  of  bullocks,  sheep,  swine,  and  poultry, 
which  are  maintained.  The  great  inquiry,  tlien,  is, 
what  kind  of  crops  will  least  exhaust  the  land  in  their 
cultivation,  and  furnish,  at  the  same  time,  support  to  the 
greatest  number  of  animals  ? 

A  very  large  amount  of  land,  in  England,  is  culti- 
vated in  turnips.  Fields  of  turnips  of  three,  four,  and 
even  five,  hundred  acres,  are  sometimes  seen,  though 
the  common  fields  are  much  less ;  and  it  may  be  ob- 


334  APPENDIX. 

served,  aere,  that  in  the  richest  and  best-cultivated  parts 
of  England,  enclosures  of  ten,  fifteen,  twenty,  or  thirty, 
acres,  seemed  more  common.  Since  the  introduction 
of  the  turnip  culture,  bullocks  and  sheep  have  trebled 
in  number.  Turnips,  for  the  reasons  given,  are  not 
great  exhausters  of  the  soil ;  and  they  furnish  abundant 
food  for  animals.  Let  us  suppose,  that  one  bushel  of 
oats  or  barley  may  be  raised  at  the  same  cost  as  ten 
bushels  of  turnips,  and  will  go  as  far  in  support  of 
stock.  The  great  difference  in  the  two  crops  is  to  be 
found  in  the  farmer's  barn-yard.  Here  is  the  test  of 
their  comparative  value.  This  is  the  secret  of  the  great 
advantages  which  follow  from  their  cultivation.  The 
value  of  manure,  in  agriculture,  is  well  appreciated. 
M'Queen  states  the  extraordinary  fact,  that  the  value 
of  the  animal  manure,  annually  applied  to  the  crops  in 
England,  at  current  prices,  surpasses  in  value  the  whole 
amount  of  its  foreign  commerce.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  it  greatly  exceeds  it.  The  turnip  crop  returns  a 
vast  amount  of  nutritive  matter  to  the  soil.  The  farm- 
er, then,  from  his  green  crops,  and  by  a  regular  system 
of  rotation,  finds  green  feed  for  his  cattle  and  wheat  for 
the  market. 

Among  the  lighter  English  soils,  is  that  of  the 
county  of  Norfolk  ;  a  county,  however,  which  he  had 
not  the  pleasure  to  visit.  Its  soil,  he  understood,  is 
light,  a  little  inclined  to  sand,  or  light  loam.  Such 
soils  are  not  unfavorable  to  roots.  Here  is  the  place 
of  {he  remarkable  cultivation  and  distinguished  im- 
provements of  that  eminent  cultivator,  Mr.  Coke,  now 
Earl  of  Leicester.*  In  these  lands,  he  understood,  a 
common  rotation  is  turnips,  barley,  clover,  wheat.  These 
lands  resemble  much  of  the  land  in  our  county  of  Ply- 
mouth ;  and  the  sandy  lands  to  be  found  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Connecticut  and  Merrimack  rivers.  The  culti- 
vation of  green  crops  in  New  England  deserves  atten- 
tion.     There  is  no  incapacity  in  our  soil ;  and  there 

*  He  has  increased  the  rental  of  his  farms,  by  his  improvements, 
from  twenty-five  to  two  hundred  thousand  dollars  a  year. 


PROGRESS   Ot"   AGRICULTURE.  335 

are  no  circumstances  unfavorable  to  their  production. 
What  would  be  the  best  kind  of  succulent  vegetables 
to  be  cultivated,  whether  turnips  or  carrots,  he  was  not 
prepared  to  say.  But  no  attempts,  witliin  his  knowl- 
edge, have  been  made  among  us  of  a  systematic  agricul- 
ture ;  and  until  we  enter  upon  some  regular  rotation  of 
crops,  and  our  husbandry  becomes  more  systematic,  no 
distinguished  success  can  be  looked  for.  As  to  our 
soil,  as  had  been  remarked,  there  is  no  inherent  inca- 
pacity for  the  production  of  any  of  the  common  crops. 
We  could  raise  wiicat  in  Massachusetts.  The  average 
crop  in  England  is  twenty-six  bushels  to  the  acre.  From 
his  own  farm,  and  it  was  comparatively  a  thin  and  poor 
soil,  he  had  obtained,  this  Summer,  seventy-six  bushels 
of  wheat  upon  three  acres  of  land.  It  is  not,  therefore, 
any  want  of  capability  in  the  soil ;  but  the  improvement 
and  success  of  our  husbandry  must  depend  upon  a  suc- 
cession of  crops  adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  our  soil, 
climate,  and  peculiar  condition. 

In  England,  a  large  portion  of  the  turnip  crop  is  con- 
sumed on  the  land  where  it  grows.  The  sheep  are  fed 
out  of  doors  all  Winter  ;  and  he  saw  many  large  flocks, 
thousands  and  millions  of  sheep,  which  were  never 
housed.  This  was  matter  of  surprise,  especially  con- 
sidering the  wetness  of  the  climate ;  and  these  sheep 
were  often  exposed  in  fields  where  a  dry  spot  could  not 
be  found  for  them  to  lie  down  upon.  Sheep  were  often 
folded  in  England  by  wattled  fences,  or  hurdles,  tempo- 
rarily erected  in  difterent  parts  of  the  field,  and  remov- 
ed from  place  to  place,  as  the  portions  of  the  crop  were 
consumed.  In  some  cases,  they  were  folded,  and  the 
turnips  dug  and  carried  to  them.  In  such  case,  they 
were  always  fed  upon  lands  which  were  intended  the 
next  year  to  be,  as  far  as  practicable,  brought  under 
cultivation.  He  had  seen  many  laborers  in  fields,  em- 
ployed in  drawing  the  turnips,  splitting  tliem,  and  scat- 
tering them  over  the  land,  for  the  use  of  the  sheep, 
which  was  considered  better,  often,  tlian  to  leave  the 
sheep  to  dig  for  themselves.     These  laborers  would  be 


336  APPENDIX. 

SO  employed  all  Winter ;  and  if  the  ground  should  be- 
come frozen,  the  turnips  are  taken  up  with  a  bar.  To- 
gether with  the  turnips,  it  is  thought  important  that 
the  sheep  should  have  a  small  quantity  of  other  food. 
Chopped  hay,  sometimes  a  little  oil  cake,  or  oats,  is 
given.  This  is  called  trough  food,  as  it  is  eaten  in 
troughs,  standing  about  in  the  field.  In  so  moist  a 
climate  as  that  of  England,  some  land  is  so  wet,  that, 
in  the  farmer's  phrase,  it  will  not  carry  sheep ;  that  is, 
it  is  quite  too  wet  for  sheep  to  lie  out  upon  it.  In  such 
cases,  the  turnips  must  be  carried,  that  is.  removed  from 
the  field,  and  fed  out  elsewhere.  The  last  season  was 
uncommonly  wet,  and  for  that  reason,  perhaps,  he  could 
not  so  well  judge  ;  but  it  appeared  to  him,  it  would  be 
an  improvement  in  English  husbandry  to  furnish  for 
sheep,  oftener  than  is  done,  not  only  a  tolerably  dry 
ground  to  lie  on,  but  some  sort  of  shelter  against  the 
cold  rains  of  Winter.  The  turnips,  doubtless,  are  more 
completely  consumed  when  dug,  split,  and  fed  out. 
The  Swedish  turnip,  he  had  little  doubt,  was  best  suit- 
ed to  cold  climates.  It  was  scarcely  injured  by  being 
frozen  in  the  ground  in  the  Winter,  as  it  would  thaw 
again,  and  be  still  good  in  Spring.  In  Scotland,  in  the 
Lothians,  where  cultivation  is  equal  to  that  in  any  pai.t 
of  England,  it  is  more  the  practice,  than  further  south, 
to  house  turnips,  or  draw  them,  and  cover  them  from 
frost. 

One  of  the  things  which  now  attracted  much  atten- 
tion among  the  agriculturists  in  England,  was  the  sub- 
ject of  tile  draining.  This  most  efficient  and  successful 
mode  of  draining  is  getting  into  very  extensive  use. 
Much  of  the  soil  of  England,  as  he  had  already  stated, 
rested  on  a  clayey  and  retentive  subsoil.  Excessive  wet- 
ness is  prejudicial  and  destructive  to  the  crops.  Mar- 
ginal drains,  or  drains  on  the  outside  of  the  fields,  do 
not  produce  the  desired  results.  These  tile  drains  have 
effected  most  important  improvements.  The  tile  itself 
is  made  of  clay,  baked  like  bricks,  about  one  foot  in 
length,  four  inches  in  width,  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in 


PROGRESS  OF   AGRICULTURE.  337 

thickness,  and  stands  from  six  to  eight  inches  in  height, 
being  hemispherical,  or  hke  the  half  of  a  cylinder,  with 
ils  sides  elongated.  It  resembles  the  Dutch  tiles  some- 
times seen  on  the  roofs  of  the  old  houses  in  Albany  and 
New  York.  A  ditch  is  sunk  eighteen  or  twenty  inches 
in  depth,  and  these  drains  are  multiplied  over  a  field, 
sometimes  at  a  distance  of  only  seven  yards  apart.  The 
ditch,  or  drain,  being  dug,  these  tiles  are  laid  down, 
with  the  hollow  side  at  bottom,  on  the  smooth  clay,  or 
any  other  firm  subsoil,  the  sides  placed  near  to  each 
other,  some  little  straw  thrown  over  the  joints  to  pre- 
vent the  admission  of  dirt,  and  the  whole  covered  up. 
This  is  not  so  expensive  a  mode  of  draining  as  might  bo 
supposed.  The  ditch,  or  drain,  need  only  be  narrow, 
and  tiles  are  of  much  cheaper  transportation  than  stone 
would  be.  But  the  result  is  so  important,  as  well  to 
justify  the  expense.  It  is  estimated,  that  this  thor- 
ough draining  adds  often  twenty  per  cent,  to  the  pro- 
duction of  the  wheat  crop.  A  beautiful  example  came 
under  his  observation  in  Nottinghamshire,  not  long 
before  he  left  England.  A  gentleman  was  showing 
him  his  grounds  for  next  year's  crop  of  wheat.  On 
one  side  of  the  lane,  where  the  land  had  been  drained, 
the  wheat  was  already  up,  and  growing  luxuriantly  ;  on 
the  other,  where  the  land  was  subject  to  no  other  dis- 
advantage than  that  it  had  not  been  drained,  it  was 
still  too  wet  to  be  sowed  at  all.  It  may  be  thought 
singular  enough,  but  it  was  doubtless  true,  that  on  stiff, 
clayey  lands,  thorough  draining  is  as  useful  in  dry,  hot 
Summers,  as  in  cold  and  wet  Summers  ;  for  such  land, 
if  a  wet  Winter  or  Spring  be  suddenly  followed  by 
hot  and  dry  weather,  is  apt  to  become  hard  and  baked, 
so  that  the  roots  of  plants  cannot  enter  it.  Thorough 
draining,  by  giving  an  opportunity  to  the  water  on  the 
surface  to  be  constantly  escaping,  corrects  this  evil. 
Draining  can  never  be  needed  to  so  great  an  extent  in 
Massachusetts,  as  in  England  and  Scotland,  from  the 
different  nature  of  the  soil ;  but  we  have  yet  quantities 
of  low  meadow  lands,  producing  wild,  harsh,  sour  grass- 
29  s.  A. 


338  APPENDIX. 

es,  or  producing  nothing,  which,  there  is  httle  doubt, 
might  be  rendered  most  profitable  hay  fields,  by  being 
well  drained.  When  we  understand  better  the  impor- 
tance of  concentrating  labor,  instead  of  scattering  it , 
when  we  shall  come  to  estimate,  duly,  the  superior 
profit  of  •'  a  little  farm,  well  tilled,'  over  a  great  farm, 
half  cultivated  and  half  manured,  overrun  with  weeds, 
and  scourged  with  exhausting  crops,  we  shall  then  fill 
our  barns,  and  double  the  Winter  feed  for  our  cattle  and 
sheep,  by  the  products  of  these  waste  meadows. 

There  is  in  England  another  mode  of  improvement, 
most  important,  instances  of  which  he  had  seen,  and 
one  which  he  regarded  as  the  most  beautiful  agri- 
cultural improvement  which  had  ever  come  within  his 
observation.  He  meant  irrigation,  or  the  making  of 
what  is  called  water  meadows.  He  had  first  seen  them 
in  Wiltshire,  and  was  much  struck  with  them,  not  hav- 
ing before  understood,  from  reading  or  conversation, 
exactlv  what  they  were.  But  he  had  afterwards  an 
opportunity  of  examining  a  most  signal  and  successful 
example  of  this  mode  of  improvement  on  the  estates  of 
the  Duke  of  Portland,  in  the  north  of  England,  on  the 
borders  of  Sherwood  forest.  Indeed,  it  was  part  of  the 
old  forest.  Sherwood  forest,  at  least  in  its  present 
state,  is  not  like  the  pine  forests  of  Maine,  the  heavy 
hard-wood  forests  of  the  unredeemed  lands  of  New 
Hampshire  and  Vermont,  or  the  still  heavier  timbered 
lands  of  the  West.  It  embraces  a  large  extent  of  coun- 
try, with  various  soils,  some  of  them  thin  and  light, 
with  beautiful  and  venerable  oaks,  of  unknown  age, 
much  open  ground  between  them  and  underneath  their 
wide-spread  branches,  and  this  covered  with  heather, 
lichens,  and  fern.  As  a  scene  to  the  eye,  and  to  the 
memorv  by  its  long  existence  and  its  associations,  it  is 
beautiful  and  interesting.  But  in  many  parts  the  soil 
is  far  enough  from  being  rich.  Upon  the  borders  of 
this  forest  are  the  water  meadows  of  which  he  was 
speaking.  A  little  river  ran  through  the  forest  in  this 
part,  at  the  bottom  of  a  valley,  with  sides  moderately 


PROGRESS  OF  AGRICULTURE.  339 

sloping,  and  of  considerable  extent,  between  the  river 
at  the  bottom  and  the  common  level  of  the  surrounding 
country  above.  This  little  river,  before  reaching  the 
place,  ran  through  a  small  town,  and  gathered,  doubt- 
less, some  refuse  matter  in  its  course.  From  this  river 
the  water  was  taken,  at  the  upper  end  of  the  valley, 
conducted  along  the  edge,  or  bank,  in  a  canal  or  car- 
rier, and  from  this  carrier,  at  proper  times,  suffered  to 
flow  out,  very  gently,  spreading  over  and  irrigating  the 
whole  surface,  trickling  and  shining,  when  lie  saw  it, 
(and  it  was  then  November,)  among  the  light  green  of 
the  new-springing  grass,  and  collected  below  in  another 
canal,  from  which  it  was  again  let  out,  to  flow  in  like 
manner  over  land  lying  still  further  down  towards  the 
bottom  of  the  valley.  Ten  years  ago,  this  land,  for 
production,  was  worth  little  or  nothing.  He  w^as  told 
that  some  of  it  had  been  let  for  no  more  than  a  shilling 
an  acre.  It  has  not  been  manured,  and  yet  is  now  most 
extensively  productive.  It  is  not  flooded ;  the  water 
does  not  stand  upon  it ;  it  flows  gently  over  it,  and  is 
applied  several  times  in  a  year,  to  each  part, — say  in 
March,  May,  July,  and  October.  In  November,  when 
he  saw  it,  the  farmers  were  taking  off  the  third  crop  of 
hay  cut  this  season,  and  that  crop  was  ccrtairdy  not  less 
than  two  tons  to  the  acre.  This  last  crop  was  mostly 
used  as  green  food  for  cattle.  When  he  spoke  of  the 
quantity  of  tons,  he  meant  tons  of  dried  hay.  After  this 
crop  was  off,  sheep  were  to  be  put  on  it,  to  have  lambs 
at  Christmas,  so  as  to  come  into  market  in  March,  a 
time  of  year  when  they  command  a  high  price.  Up- 
on taking  off  the  sheep  in  March,  the  land  would  be 
watered,  the  process  of  watering  lasting  two  or  three 
days,  or  perhaps  eight  or  ten  days,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances, and  repeated  after  the  taking  oft"  of  each 
successive  crop.  Although  this  water  has,  no  doubt, 
considerable  sediment  in  it,  yet  the  general  fact  shows 
how  important  water  is  to  the  growth  of  plants,  and  how 
far  even  it  may  supply  the  place  of  other  sources  of  sus- 
tenance.    Now,  we  in  Massachusetts  have  a. more  un- 


340  APPENDIX. 

even  surface,  more  valleys  with  sloping  sides,  by  many 
times  more  streams,  and  such  a  climate  that  our  farms 
suffer  much  oftener  from  drought  than  farms  in  Eng- 
land. May  we  not  learn  something  useful,  therefore, 
from  the  examples  of  irrigation  in  that  country  ? 

With  respect  to  implements  of  husbandry,  Mr.  Web- 
ster was  of  opinion  that  the  English,  on  the  whole, 
had  no  advantage  over  us.  Their  wagons  and  carts 
were  no  better ;  their  ploughs,  he  thought,  were  not 
better  any  where,  and  in  some  counties  far  inferior,  be- 
cause unnecessarily  heavy.  The  subsoil  plough,  for 
which  we  have  little  use,  was  esteemed  a  useful  inven- 
tion ;  and  the  mole  plough,  which  he  had  seen  in  opera- 
tion, and  the  use  of  which  was  to  make  an  under-ground 
drain,  without  disturbing  the  surface,  was  an  ingenious 
contrivance,  likely  to  be  useful  in  clay  soils,  free  from 
stone  and  gravel,  but  which  could  be  little  used  in  Mas- 
sachusetts. In  general,  he  thought  the  English  utensils 
of  husbandry  were  unnecessarily  cumbrous  and  heavy. 
The  ploughs,  especially,  required  a  great  strength  of 
draught.  But  as  drill-husbandry  was  extensively  prac- 
tised in  England,  and  very  little  with  us,  the  various 
implements,  or  machines,  for  drill-sowing,  in  that  coun- 
try, quite  surpass  all  we  have.  He  did  not  remember 
to  have  seen  the  horse-rake  used  in  England,  although 
he  had  seen  in  operation  implements  for  spreading  hay, 
from  the  swarth,  to  dry,  or  rather,  perhaps,  for  turning 
it.  drawn  by  horses. 

The  raising  of  sheep,  in  England,  is  an  immense  in- 
terest. England  probably  clips  fifty  millions  of  fleeces 
this  year,  lambs  under  a  year  old  not  being  shorn.  The 
average  yield  may  be  six  or  seven  pounds  to  a  fleece. 
There  are  two  principal  classes  of  sheep  in  England, 
the  long-wooled  and  the  short-wooled.  Among  these 
are  many  varieties,  but  this  is  the  general  division,  or 
classification.  The  Leicester  and  the  South  Down  be- 
long respectively  to  these  several  families.  The  com- 
mon clip  of  the  former  may  be  estimated  from  seven  to 
eight  pounds  ;  and  of  the  latter,  from  three  to  three  and 


^ROGRESS  OF   AGRICULTURE.  341 

a  half  or  four.  Mr.  Webster  mentioned  these  particulars 
only  as  estimates  ;  and  much  more  accurate  information 
mii^ht  doubtless  be  obtained  from  many  writers. 

The  Leicester  sheep  were  like  the  short-horned  cat 
tie.  They  must  be  kept  well ;  they  should  always  be 
fat ;  and,  pressed  by  good  keeping  to  early  maturity, 
they  are  found  very  profitable.  '  Feed  well'  was  the 
maxim  of  the  great  Roman  farmer,  Cato  ;  and  that  short 
sentence  comprises  much  of  all  that  belongs  to  tiie  prof- 
itable economy  of  live  stock.  The  South  Downs  are  a 
good  breed,  both  for  wool  and  mutton.  They  crop  the 
grass  that  grows  on  the  thin  soils,  over  beds  of  chalk, 
in  Wiltshire,  Hampshire,  and  Dorsetshire.  They  ought 
not  to  scorn  the  pastures  of  New  England. 

When  one  looks,  said  Mr.  Webster,  to  the  condi- 
tion of  England,  he  must  see  of  what  immense  impor- 
tance is  every,  even  the  smallest,  degree  of  improvement 
in  its  agricultural  productions.  Suppose,  that  by  some 
new  discovery,  or  some  improved  mode  of  culture,  only 
one  per  cent,  could  be  added  to  the  annual  results  of 
English  cultivation  ;  this,  of  itself,  would  materially  af- 
fect the  comfortable  subsistence  of  millions  of  human 
beings.  It  was  often  said  that  England  was  a  garden. 
This  was  a  strong  metaphor.  There  was  poor  land, 
and  some  poor  cultivation,  in  England.  All  people 
are  not  equally  industrious,  careful,  and  skilful.  But, 
on  the  whole,  England  was  a  prodigy  of  agricultural 
wealth. 

AMERICAN  AGRICULTURE. 

The  system  of  husbandry  prevailing  in  our  country 
is  much  inferior  to  that  in  England  and  Scotland.  The 
produce  of  virgin  soils  at  the  West  is  not  only  no  proper 
measure  of  the  character  of  our  culture,  but  it  has  doubt- 
less contributed  to  keep  it  in  a  depressed  state.  Instead 
of  having  recourse  to  better  tillage,  and  a  more  enlight- 
ened plan  of  cropping,  the  farmer  who  finds  his  profits 
declining  abandons  his  farm,  and  establishes  himself  in 
a  new  country.  In  this  way  our  soils,  in  the  eastern 
29* 


342  APPENDIX. 

part  of  the  Union,  have  been  gradually  deteriorating, 
while  those  of  England  and  Scotland  have  been  improv- 
ing. The  same  process  is  now  going  on  in  the  Western 
States  ;  and,  unless  the  work  of  exhausting  the  soil  is 
arrested,  successive  emigrations  must  take  place,  till  our 
farming  population  reach  the  shores  of  the  Pacific.  The 
average  produce  of  an  acre  of  land  in  the  eastern  coun- 
ties of  New  York,  or  in  Massachusetts,  is  about  one 
third  less  than  it  is  in  England.  In  many  parts  of  Scot- 
land, a  country,  which,  forty  years  since,  was  little  more 
than  unbroken  heath,  the  average  annual  produce  is 
greater  than  in  England.  These  countries  owe  their 
superiority  in  this  respect,  therefore,  not  to  any  natural 
advantages  of  soil  or  climate,  but  to  a  larger  outlay  of 
capital  in  manuring  and  draining,  and  to  a  more  judi- 
cious system  of  rotation  in  crops.  The  proprietors  of 
land,  too,  have  not  been  infected  with  so  great  a  dread 
of  ••  book-farming,"  as  has  prevailed  with  us. 

TiiG  history  of  the  last  few  years,  however,  is  full  of 
encouragement.  The  old  plan  of  fallowing  is  nearly 
abandoned.  Our  farmers  are  beginning  to  discover 
the  value  of  manure.  Fifteen  years  since,  nothing  was 
more  common,  in  Winter,  than  to  see  farmers  who  re- 
sided on  the  Mohawk  drawing  the  manure  which  had 
been  accumulating,  perhaps  for  years,  and  emptying  it, 
through  holes  in  the  ice,  into  the  river.  It  is  now  pre- 
served, and  applied  to  the  fields.  The  use  of  plaster, 
too,  has  done  much  to  ameliorate  the  soil,  and  some 
progress  has  been  made  (though  much  too  little)  to- 
wards a  proper  system  of  rotation  and  root  culture. 
Wherever  the  spirit  of  improvement  has  been  active, 
the  results  have  been  astonishing.  The  annual  produce 
of  Dutchess  county,  on  the  Hudson,  has  doubled,  per- 
haps trebled,  within  twenty  years.  The  price  of  land 
has  advanced  in  a  still  greater  ratio.  Instances  are  ad- 
duced from  various  parts  of  the  country,  all  showing 
that  nothing  is  Avanting  but  good  husbandry,  to  make 
any  of  our  soils  fertile  and  profitable.  For  more  detail- 
ed remarks  on  this  important  subject,  I  would  refer  to 


IMPROVEMENT  IN  FOOD,  CLOTHING^  ETC.     343 

The  Farmer's  CoiiTpanion,'  by  the  late  Judge  Buel, 
which  constitutes  the  sixteenth  volume  of  '  The  School 
LiBUAiiY.'  Of  this  work  Professor  Dean,  in  his  Sketch 
of  the  Life  of  Judge  Buel,  thus  speaks :  This  is  "  the 
last  and  most  perfect  of  his  works,  containing,  within  a 
small  compass,  the  embodied  results  of  his  agricultural 
experience, — a  rich  legacy,  to  winch  the  great  extent 
of  our  farming  interest  cannot  remain  insensible."  "  I 
deem  it  reallv  the  most  fortunate  circumstance  in  his 
life,  that  he  siiould  have  been  permitted,  so  immediate- 
ly previous  to  his  departure,  to  furnish  just  this  volume, 
for  just  this  purpose  ;  and  I  shall  confidently  expect, 
that  the  coming  generation  will  be  better  farmers,  better 
citizens,  and  better  men,  from  having  had  the  formation 
of  their  young  minds  influenced,  to  some  extent,  by  the 
lessons  of  experience  and  practical  wisdom  derived  from 
the  last,  best,  most  mature,  production  of  this  excellent 
man." 


VI.     Pages  183  and  248. 

IMPROVEMENT  IN  FOOD,   CLOTHING,   AND  LODGING. 

There  is  no  better  way  of  testing  the  real  influence 
of  improvements  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  than  by  con- 
sidering how  they  have  affected  the  great  bulk  of  the 
people.  While  all  classes  have  been  vastly  benefited, 
there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  they  who  labor  with  their 
hands  have  been  the  greatest  gainers.  These  improve- 
ments have  enabled  multitudes  of  them  to  employ  their 
talents  in  the  most  productive  manner,  and  in  that  way, 
to  advance  themselves  to  the  highest  stations  of  wealth 
and  influence.  In  this  country,  it  is  proverbial,  that  the 
rich  and  distinguished  of  the  present  generation  are 
descended  from  those,  who,  two  generations  since,  were 
poor,  and  without  a  name.  It  is  not  so  generally  known, 
that,  to  a  great  extent,  the  same  fact  may  be  alleged 
of  Great  Britain.     "  I  believe,"  says  Mr.  Rickards,  "  it 


344  APPENDIX. 

may  be  safely  added,  that  every  one  of  the  great  for- 
tunes and  immense  establishments,  existing  in  the  man- 
ufacturing districts,  may  be  traced  to  the  minute  savings 
of  common  operatives,  who,  from  the  smallest  of  small 
beginnings,  have,  by  prudence,  skill,  and  unremitting 
perseverance  and  industry,  raised  themselves,  with  un- 
exampled rapiditv,  to  a  pinnacle  of  wealth  and  impor- 
tance, which,  but  for  its  existence,  could  scarcely  be 
believed.  This,  then,  is  a  state  of  society,  with  its  in- 
stitutions, essentially  popular  in  its  origin." 

It  is  our  object,  however,  in  this  place,  to  show  what 
the  mass  of  the  people  have  gained,  in  respect  to  phys- 
ical comfort.  For  this  purpose  we  shall  compare  their 
past  condition  with  their  present,  in  respect  to  food, 
clothing,  and  lodging ;  making  the  comparison  in  re- 
gard to  England,  Scotland,  and  the  United  States. 

I.    England. 
1.  In  the  Reign  of  Elizabeth. 

[A.  D.  1568 — 1603.]  ••  The  bread,  throughout  the 
land,"  says  Harrison,  who  wrote  in  the  reign  of  Eliz- 
abeth, "  is  made  of  such  graine,  as  the  soil  yielded ; 
neverthelesse,  the  gentilitie  commonlie  provide  them- 
selves sufficienthe  of  wheat  for  their  owne  tables,  whilest 
their  household  and  poore  neighbours,  in  some  shires, 
are  inforced  to  content  themselves  with  rie  or  barleie  ; 
yea,  and  in  time  of  dearth,  manie  with  bread  made 
either  of  bran,  peason,  or  otes,  or  of  all  together,  and 
some  acorns  among ;  of  which  scourge  the  poorest  doe 
soonest  tast,  sith  they  are  least  able  to  provide  them- 
selves of  better.  I  will  not  sale  that  this  extremitie  is 
oft  so  well  to  be  scene  in  time  of  plentie,  as  of  dearth  ; 
but,  if  I  should,  I  coulde  easilie  bring  my  triall." — De- 
scriptio7i  of  England. 

Sir  F.  M.  Eden,  whose  elaborate  researches  have 
ihrown  much  light  on  this  subject,  truly  states,  that  the 
substantiality  of  diet,  for  which  the  sixteenth  century 
is  renowned,  was  confined  chiefly  to  the  tables  of  per 


IMPROVEMENT  IN  FOOD,  CLOTHING,  ETC.  345 

sons  of  rank.  "  A  maid  of  honor,  perhaps,  breakfasted 
on  roast  beef;  but  the  ploughman,  in  these  good  old 
times,  as  they  are  called,  could,  I  fear,  only  banquet  on 
the  strength  of  water  gruel." — State  of  the  Poor. 

"  It  was  not,"  says  Hume,  '•  till  the  end  of  the  reign 
of  Henry  the  Eighth,  that  any  salads,  carrots,  turnips, 
or  other  edible  roots,  were  produced  in  England  ;  the 
little  of  these  vegetables  that  was  used,  was  imported 
from  Holland  and  Flanders.  Queen  Catharine,  when 
she  wanted  a  salad,  was  obliged  to  despatch  a  mes- 
senger thither,  on  purpose." 

With  the  exception  of  the  potato,  most  of  these  veg- 
etables seem  to  have  been  introduced  into  England 
from  the  south  of  Europe.  The  artichoke,  which  is 
perhaps  the  oldest,  came  from  the  Levant,  by  way  of 
Italy,  and  was  introduced  into  England  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  the  Eighth.  Asparagus  and  celery  came  from 
Italy,  through  France,  and  were  introduced  about  the 
close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  cauliflower  was 
brought  from  Italy,  where  it  was  obtained  from  the  isl- 
and of  Cyprus,  and  was  imported  into  England  about 
the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  beet  and 
radish  came  at  a  later  period,  from  France.  (See 
Beckmann.^ 

"  Many  esculent  plants,"  says  Wade,  in  his  '  History 
of  the  Middle  and  Working  Classes,'  "  which  are  now 
cultivated  in  the  fields,  and,  in  a  scarcity  of  corn,  are 
found  to  be  admirable  substitutes  even  for  bread,  were 
in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  either  little 
known,  or  exclusively  confined  to  the  tables  of  the 
rich.  Potatoes,  at  present,  are  a  general  article  of 
diet ;  in  King  James's  reign,  they  were  considered  as 
a  great  delicacy.  They  are  noticed  among  the  articles 
provided  for  the  Queen's  household  ;  the  quantity,  how- 
ever, is  small,  and  the  price  two  shillings  the  pound.  In 
1619,  two  cauliflowers  cost  two  shillings,  and  sixteen 
artichokes,  three  shillings  and  four  pence, — prices  which 
sufficiently  prove  their  rarity.  Tea  and  sugar,  which 
now  form  regular  articles  of  cottage  economy,  were  still 


346  APPENDIX. 

greater  rarities.  The  former  article  was  not  imported, 
in  any  considerable  quantities,  till  after  the  establish- 
ment of  a  new  East-India  Company,  with  liberty  to 
trade  to  China  and  Japan,  in  1637.  ^So  notice  is  ti.ic- 
en  of  tea,  in  the  book  of  rates,  annexed  to  the  act, 
passed  in  1660,  for  granting  Charles  the  Second  a  sub 
sidy  of  tonnage  and  poundage  upon  all  merchandise 
exported  and  imported  ;  but  in  a  subsequent  act,  pass- 
ed in  the  same  session,  tea,  cofiee.  and  chocolate,  are 
subjected  to  the  excise.  It  is  singular,  however,  that 
the  duty  was  imposed  on  the  liquor  prepared  from  these 
articles,  in  lieu  of  the  articles  themselves  ;  from  which 
it  may  be  inferred,  that  none  of  these  beverages  were 
made  by  private  famihes.  but  they  were  purchased,  ready 
prepared,  from  the  compounders. 

"  The  high  price  of  butchers'  meat,  in  the  reign  of 
James  the  First,  (the  necessary  consequence  of  agri- 
cultural improvement.)  is  a  strong  proof  that  flesh  meat 
constituted  an  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  diet  of  la- 
borers, at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
About  this  period,  beef  was  three  pence  and  three 
farthings,  and  mutton  three  pence  and  three  eighths  of 
a  penny,  the  pound.  At  this  time,  the  wages  allowed 
by  justices  in  a  midland  county,  to  laborers  in  husban- 
dry, were  from  six  pence  to  ten  pence  the  day,  without 
meat,  and  to  women  haymakers,  four  pence  the  day, 
without  meat.  In  tiiese  ratings,  the  magistrates  calcu- 
lated that  half  the  day's  earnings  w'ere  equivalent  to 
diet  for  one  day,  which  is  a  much  less  proportion  than 
would  be  requisite  at  present.  The  price  of  corn  was 
rather  higher  than  in  the  middle  of  the  following  cen- 
tury. The  average  price  of  middling  wheat,  from  1606 
to  1625,  was  one  pound  fourteen  shillings  and  one 
penny,  the  quarter ;  whereas  the  average  price,  for  the 
twenty  years  ending  in  1745,  was  one  pound  nine  shil- 
lings and  ten  pence. 

"  In  regard  to  clothing,  Moryson,  who  lived  in  this 
reign,  and  travelled  extensively  over  Europe,  speaking, 
in  his  '  Itinerarv,'  of  Ensland,  tells  us.  '  Husbandmen 


IMPROVEMENT  IN  FOOD,  CLOTHING,  ETC.  347 

tveare  garments  of  course  cloth,  made  at  home,  and 
their  wives  weare  gownes  of  the  same  cloth,  kirtles  of 
some  light  stufle,  with  linnen  aprons,  and  cover  their 
heads  with  a  linnen  coyfe  and  a  felt  hat,  and  in  gener- 
al their  linnen  is  course,  and  made  at  home.'  " 

Dr.  Howell,  as  quoted  by  Hume,  states  that  Q,ueen 
Elizabeth  herself  never  wore  any  other  than  cloth  hose, 
until  the  third  year  of  her  reign,  when  she  was  present- 
ed with  a  pair  of  black  silk  knit  stockings,  by  her  silk 
woman. 

The  luxury  of  a  linen  shirt  was  confined  to  the  high- 
er classes,  says  McCullocli.  The  cloth  used  by  the 
bulk  of  the  people  was  mostly  of  home  manufacture  ; 
and,  compared  with  what  they  now  make  use  of,  was 
at  once  costly,  coarse,  and  comfortless.  All  classes, 
from  tiie  peer  to  the  peasant,  were  universally  without 
many  articles,  the  daily  enjoyment  of  which  is  now 
deemed  essential,  even  by  the  poorest  individuals.  Tea 
and  coffee  were  then  wholly,  and  sugar  almost  wholly 
unknown. 

In  regard  to  lodgings,  it  appears,  that  in  this  reign, 
the  dwelling  of  an  English  peasant  was  little  superior, 
in  comfort  and  cleanliness,  to  what  we  observe  in  the 
clay-built  hovels  of  the  Irish.  The  dwellings  of  the 
common  people,  according  to  Erasmus,  had  not  yet  at- 
tained the  convenience  of  a  cliimney  to  let  out  the 
smoke,  and  the  flooring  of  their  huts  was  nothing  but 
the  bare  ground ;  their  beds  consisted  of  straw,  among 
which  was  an  ancient  accumulation  of  filtii  and  refuse, 
with  a  hard  block  of  wood  for  a  pillow.  And  such,  in 
general,  was  the  situation  of  the  laboring  classes,  through- 
out Europe.  The  following  passage  is  from  '  Holing- 
shed's  Chronicle,'  chapter  x  : 

"  Neither  do  I  speak  this  in  reproach  of  any  man, 
God  is  my  judge  ;  but  to  show  that  I  do  rejoice  rather 
to  see  how  God  has  blessed  us  with  his  good  gifts,  and 
to  beiiold  how  that,  in  a  time  wherein  all  things  are 
grown  to  most  excessive  prices,  we  do  yet  find  the 
means  to  attain  and  achieve  such  furniture,  as  hereto- 


348  APPENDIX. 

fore  has  been  impossible ;  there  are  old  men  yet  dwel- 
ling in  the  village  where  I  remain,  which  have  noted 
three  things  to  be  marvellously  altered  in  England 
within  their  sound  remembrance.  One  is,  the  multi- 
tude of  chimneys  lately  erected :  whereas,  in  their 
young  days,  there  were  not  above  two  or  three,  if  so 
many,  in  most  uplandish  towns  of  the  realm,  (the  re- 
ligious houses  and  manor  places  of  their  lords  always 
excepted,  and,  peradventure,  some  great  personage :) 
but  each  made  his  fire  against  a  reredosse,  in  the  hall 
where  he  dined  and  dressed  his  meat.  The  second  is 
the  great  amendment  of  lodging ;  for,  said  they,  our 
fathers,  and  we  ourselves,  have  lain  full  oft  upon  straw 
pallettes,  covered  only  witii  a  sheet  under  coverlets, 
made  of  dagswaine  or  hopharlots,  (I  use  their  own 
terms,)  and  a  good  round  log  under  their  head,  instead 
of  a  bolster.  If  it  were  so,  that  the  father,  or  the  good- 
man  of  the  house,  had  a  matrass  or  flock-bed,  and 
thereto  a  sack  of  chaflf  to  rest  his  head  upon,  he  thought 
himself  to  be  as  well  lodged  as  the  lord  of  the  town  : 
so  well  were  they  contented.  Pillows,  they  said,  were 
thought  meet  only  for  women  in  childbed  :  as  for  ser- 
vants, if  they  had  any  sheet  above  them,  it  was  well :  for 
seldom  had  they  any  under  their  bodies,  to  keep  them 
from  the  pricking  straws,  that  ran  oft  through  the 
canvass,  and  rased  their  hardened  hides.  The  third 
thing  they  tell  of  is  the  exchange  of  treene  platters  (so 
called,  I  suppose,  from  tree  or  wood)  into  pewter,  and 
wooden  spoons  into  silver  or  tin.  For  so  common 
were  all  sorts  of  treene  vessels  in  old  time,  that  a  man 
should  hardly  find  four  pieces  of  pewter  (of  which  one 
was,  peradventure,  a  salt)  in  a  good  farmer's  house." 

Again,  in  chapter  sixteen  :  "  In  times  past,  men  were 
contented  to  dwell  in  houses  builded  of  sallow,  willow, 
&c.,  so  that  the  use  of  the  oak  was,  in  a  manner,  dedi- 
cated wholly  unto  churches,  religious  houses,  princes' 
palaces,  navigation,  &c. ;  but  now,  sallow,  &.c.,  are  re- 
jected, and  nothing  but  oak  any  where  regarded  ;  and 
yet  see  the  change  ;  for,  when  our  houses  were  builded 


IMPROVEMENT  IN  FOOD,  CLOTHING,  ETC.  349 

of  wili'.ow,  then  had  we  oaken  men  ;  but  now,  that  our 
houses  are  come  to  be  maiie  of  oak,  our  men  are  not  only 
become  willow,  but  a  great  many  altogether  of  straw, 
which  is  a  sore  alteration.  In  these,  the  courage  of  the 
owner  was  a  sufficient  defence  to  keep  the  house  in  safe- 
ty ;  but  now,  the  assurance  of  the  timber  must  defend 
the  men  from  robbing.  Now  have  we  many  chimney's  ; 
and  yet  our  tender  lines  complain  of  rheums,  catarrhs, 
and  poses  ;  then  had  we  none  but  reredosses,  and  our 
iieads  did  never  ache.  For,  as  the  smoke,  in  those  days, 
was  supposed  to  be  a  sufficient  hardening  for  the  timber 
of  the  house,  so  it  was  reputed  a  far  better  medicine  to 
keep  the  good-man  and  his  family  from  the  quack  or 
pose,  wherewith,  as  then,  very  few  were  acquainted." 
Again,  in  chapter  eighteen  :  "  Our  pewterers,  in  time 
past,  employed  the  use  of  pewter  only  upon  dishes  and 
pots,  and  a  few  other  trifles  for  service  ;  whereas,  now 
they  are  grown  into  such  exquisite  cunning,  that  they 
can,  in  manner,  imitate  by  infusion,  any  form  or  fashion 
of  cup,  dish,  salt,  or  bowl,  or  goblet,  which  is  made  by 
goldsmith's  craft,  though  they  be  never  so  curious,  and 
very  artificially  forged.  In  some  places  beyond  the 
sea,  a  garnish  of  good  flat  English  pewter  (I  say  flat, 
because  dishes  and  platters,  in  my  time,  began  to  be 
made  deep,  and  like  basins,  and  are,  indeed,  more  con- 
venient, both  for  sauce,  and  keeping  the  meat  warm) 
is  almost  esteemed  so  precious,  as  the  like  number  of 
vessels  that  are  made  of  fine  silver." 

2.    In  the  Reign  of  George  the  Second. 

Food. — The  author  of  '  Tracts  on  the  Corn  Laws,' 
who  is  regarded  by  Mr.  McCulloch  as  high  authority, 
estimates  that,  in  1760,  not  much  more  than  half  the 
population  of  England  and  Wales  fed  on  wheat ;  that 
nearly  one  sixth  of  the  whole  subsisted  on  rye,  and  the 
remainder  on  barley  and  oats.  McCulloch  is  quite  sure 
that,  at  present,  there  are  not  twenty  thousand  in  the 
whole  country  who  use  rye ;  that  the  use  of  barley  and 
oats  is  entirely  discontinued ;  that  wheat  is  nbw  the  all 
30  s.  A. 


Ob\J  APPENDIX. 

but  universal  bread-corn  of  England ;  and  that  even  the 
inferior  kinds  of  wheat  are  now  rejected,  except  by  the 
very  lowest  and  poorest  classes.  He  also  calculates 
that  the  quantity  of  butchers'  meat  consumed  in  Lon- 
don, at  this  time,  is  twice  as  great,  compared  with  the 
population,  as  it  was  in  1740  or  1750.  The  author 
of  •  The  Doctor,'  wlio  is  very  partial  to  the  olden  time, 
speaking  of  the  garden  of  a  substantial  yeoman,  in 
Yorkshire,  says,  •'•  A  hundred  years  ago,  potatoes  had 
hardly  yet  found  their  way  into  these  remote  parts  ; 
and  in  a  sheltered  spot  under  the  crag,  open  to  the 
south,  were  six  beehives.  Avhich  made  the  family  per- 
fectly independent  of  West-India  produce.  Tea  was 
in  these  days  as  little  known  as  potatoes,  and  for  all 
other  things,  honey  supplied  the  place  of  sugar." 

Clothing. — The  improvements  which  in  this  re- 
spect have  been  made,  within  even  half  a  century,  are 
very  remarkable.  The  unparelleled  abundance  and 
cheapness  of  cotton  goods,  caused  by  the  wonderful 
progress  made  in  the  cotton  manufacture,  have  been, 
in  this  respect,  of  vast  importance.  '-It  is  impossible," 
says  Mr.  Baines,  ••'  to  estimate  the  advantage,  to  the 
bulk  of  the  people,  from  the  wonderful  cheapness  of 
cotton  goods.  The  wife  of  a  laboring  man  may  buy, 
at  a  retail  shop,  a  neat  and  good  print,  as  low  as  four 
pence  per  yard :  so  that,  allowing  seven  yards  for 
the  dress,  the  whole  material  shall  only  cost  two  shil- 
lings and  four  pence.  Common  plain  calico  may  be 
bought  for  two  pence  and  a  half  per  yard.  Elegant 
cotton  prints,  for  ladies'  dresses,  sell  at  from  ten  pence 
to  one  shilling  and  four  pence  per  yard  ;  and  printed 
muslins,  at  from  one  shilling  to  four  shillings,  the  higher 
priced  having  beautiful  patterns,  in  brilliant  and  per- 
inanent  colors.  Thus,  the  humblest  classes  have  now 
the  means  of  as  great  neatness,  and  even  gayety  of 
dress,  as  the  middle  and  upper  classes  of  the  last  age 
A  country  wake,  in  the  nineteenth  century,  may  dis- 
play as  much  finery  as  a  drawing  room  of  the  eigh- 
teenth ;  and  the  peasant's  cottage  may,  at    this  day, 


IMPROVEMENT  IN  FOOD,   CLOTHING,   ETC.  351 

with  good  management,  have  as  handsome  furniture 
for  beds,  windows,  and  tables,  as  tlie  house  of  a  sub- 
stantial tradesman,  sixty  years  since.'' — History  of  the 
Cotton  Manufacture. 

The*  price  of  most  otiicr  articles  of  clothing  has  also 
been  considerably  reduced,  though  not  in  the  same  de- 
gree as  co*»ons,  at  the  same  time  that  their  fabric  has 
been  improved  and  beautified. 

Improvements  in  Lodgings. — Since  the  middle  of 
the  last  century,  an  extraordinary  change  for  the  better 
has  taken  place  in  the  habitations  of  all  classes.  Any 
one  must  be  struck  with  this,  who  compares  the  houses 
in  the  old  streets  and  lanes,  in  any  of  our  towns,  with 
those  built  within  the  last  fifty  years.  The  latter  are, 
in  all  respects,  superior.  They  are  constructed  on  a 
larger  scale  ;  the  apartments  are  more  spacious  and  lof- 
ty ;  they  arc  better  ventilated,  and  are  supplied  with 
water  to  an  extent  of  which  our  ancestors  had  no  idea. 
It  is,  in  fact,  to  the  better  construction  of  houses,  the 
greater  width  of  streets,  and,  above  all,  to  the  abundant 
supply  of  water,  and  the  eflfective  system  of  under- 
draining  that  now  exists,  that  the  entire  freedom  of  our 
great  towns  from  epidemical  diseases,  and  the  aston- 
ishing improvement  in  the  health  of  the  inhabitants, 
are  mainly  to  be  ascribed. — McCulloch's  Statistics  of 
Great  Britain. 

II.    Scotland. 

The  above  statements  apply  only  to  the  changes  that 
have  taken  place  in  the  condition  of  the  people  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales ;  but  the  change  that  has  taken  place 
in  Scotland,  since  the  beginning  and  middle  of  last 
century,  has  been  still  more  striking  and  extraordinary. 
"  At  the  periods  referred  to,"  says  Mr.  McCulloch,  •'  no 
manufactures,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  linen,  had 
been  introduced  into  Scotland.  Its  agriculture  was  in 
the  most  wretched  state  imaginable  ;  and  the  inhabi- 
tants were  miserably  supplied,  even  in  the  best  years, 
with  food,  and  were  every  now  and  then  exposed  to  all 


352  APPENDIX. 

the  horrors  of  famine.  The  details  already  laid  before 
the  reader  have  shown  the  extreme  prevalence  of  out- 
rage and  disorder  in  England,  in  the  sixteenth  centu- 
ry ;,  but  Scotland  was  a  prey  to  the  same  sort  of  disor- 
ders, so  late  as  the  end  of  the  seventeenth,  and  the 
besrinning  of  the  eighteenth,  centuries.  In  one  of  the 
discourses  of  the  Scotch  patriot.  Fletcher  of  Saltoun, 
written  in  1695.  we  find  the  following  statement: 

"  •'  There  are,  at  this  day,  in  Scotland,  (besides  a  great 
many  poor  families,  very  meanly  provided  for  by  the 
church  boxes,  with  others,  who,  by  living  on  bad  food, 
fall  into  various  diseases.)  two  hundred  thousand  peo- 
ple begging  from  door  to  door.  Tiiese  are  not  only  no 
way  advantageous,  but  a  very  grievous  burden  to  so 
poor  a  countrv.  And  though  the  number  of  them  be, 
perhaps,  double  to  what  it  was  formerly,  by  reason 
of  this  present  great  distress,  yet.  in  all  times,  there 
have  been  about  one  hundred  thousand  of  those  vag- 
abonds, who  have  lived  without  any  regard  or  subjec- 
tion, either  to  the  laws  of  the  land,  or  even  those  of 
God  and  Nature,  No  magistrate  could  ever  discover, 
or  be  informed,  which  way  one  in  a  hundred  of  those 
wretches  died,  or  that  ever  they  were  baptized.  Many 
murders  have  been  discovered  among  them  ;  and  they  are 
not  only  a  most  unspeakable  oppression  to  poor  tenants, 
(who,  if  they  give  not  bread,  or  some  kind  of  provis- 
ion, to  perhaps  forty  such  villains  in  one  day,  are  sure 
to  be  insulted  by  them,)  but  they  rob  many  poor  peo- 
ple, who  live  in  houses  distant  from  any  neighborhood. 
In  years  of  plenty,  many  thousands  of  them  meet  to- 
gether in  the  mountains,  where  they  feast  and  riot  for 
many  days  ;  and  at  country  weddings,  markets,  burials, 
and  other  the  like  public  occasions,  they  are  to  be  seen, 
both  men  and  women,  perpetually  drunk,  cursing,  blas- 
pheming, and  fighting  together."  *' 

We  suspect  there  must  be  some  exaggeration  in  this 
striking  paragraph  :  for,  as  Scotland  did  not,  at  the  pe- 
riod referred  to,  contain  more  than  a  million  of  inhab- 
itants, it   is   difficult  to  suppose,  notwithstanding  the 


IMPROVEMENT  IN  FOOD,   CLOTHING,   ETC.  353 

peculiar  distress  by  which  she  was  then  visited,  that 
two  hundred  thousand  persons,  or  a  fifth  part  of  the 
entire  population,  could  be  given  up  to  the  mendicancy 
and  disorders  described  above.  But  the  intelligence 
and  good  faith  of  Fletcher  arc  unquestionable  ;  and 
there  can  not  be  tiie  shadow  of  a  doubt,  that  the  dis- 
orders to  which  he  refers  were  of  long  standing,  and 
upon  the  most  gigantic  scale,  and  that  he  did  not  be- 
lieve he  had  in  any  degree  overstated  them.  Indeed, 
so  impressed  was  lie  by  the  idleness  and  crime  then  so 
prevalent,  and  by  the  enormities  he  had  witnessed,  that, 
to  introduce  good  order  and  industry,  he  did  not  scru- 
ple to  recommend  the  establishment  of  a  system  of 
predial  slavery,  to  which  the  vagabonds  in  question  and 
their  children  should  be  subjected  !  The  nature  of  the 
proposed  remedy  shows  what  the  disease  must  have 
been. 

The  establishment  of  schools,  and  of  a  more  vigor- 
ous and  impartial  system  of  government,  happily  suc- 
ceeded in  repressing  these  disorders.  But  the  people 
of  Scotland  continued,  till  a  comparatively  recent  pe- 
riod, without  manufactures  or  trade,  and  were  involved 
in  the  extreme  of  misery  and  destitution.  The  follow- 
ing authentic  paragraph,  extracted  from  the  statistical 
account  of  the  parish  of  Meigle,  in  Strathmore,  contrib- 
uted by  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Playfair,  of  St.  Andrew's, 
may  be  considered  as  applying  to  the  whole  surround- 
ing district : 

"  Since  the  year  1745,  a  fortunate  epoch  for  Scot- 
land, in  general,  improvements  have  been  carried  on 
with  great  ardor  and  success.  At  that  time,  the  state 
of  the  country  was  rude,  beyond  conception.  The 
most  fertile  tracts  were  waste,  or  indifterently  cultiva- 
ted. The  education,  manners,  dress,  furniture,  and 
tables,  of  the  gentry  were  not  so  liberal,  decent,  and 
sumptuous,  as  those  of  ordinary  farmers  are,  at  present. 
The  common  people,  clothed  in  tlie  coarsest  garb,  and 
starving  on  the  meanest  fare,  lived  in  despicable  huts, 
with  their  cattle. 

30* 


354  APPENDIX. 

"  The  lialf-ploughed  fields  yielded  scanty  crops,  and 
manufactures  scarcely  existed.  Almost  every  improve- 
ment in  agriculture  is  of  late  date ;  for  no  ground  was 
then  fallowed  ;  no  peas,  grass,  turnips,  nor  potatoes, 
were  then  raised ;  no  cattle  were  fattened  ;  and  little 
gi-ain  was  exported.  Oats  and  barley  were  alternate- 
ly sown  ;  and.  during  seven  months  of  the  year,  the  best 
soil  was  ravaged  by  flocks  of  sheep,  a  certain  number 
of  which  was  annually  sold  and  carried  off',  to  be  fed 
on  richer  pastures. 

••  The  inactivity  and  indolence  of  farmers  were  as- 
tonishing. When  seed-time  was  finished,  the  plough 
and  harrow  were  laid  aside  till  after  Autumn ;  and  the 
sole  employment  of  the  farmer  and  his  servants  con- 
sisted in  weeding  the  corn-fields,  and  in  digging  and 
carrying  home  peat,  turf,  and  heath,  for  Winter  fuel. 
The  produce  of  the  farm  was  barely  sufficient  to  enable 
the  tenant  to  pay  a  trifling  rent  and  servants'  wages, 
and  to  procure  for  his  family  a  scanty  subsistence.'" 

In  the  Highlands,  the  situation  of  the  inhabitants 
was,  if  possible,  worse.  The  writer  of  the  statistical 
account  of  the  united  parishes  of  Lochgoilhead  and 
Kilmorish,  in  Argyleshire,  referring  to  the  state  of  the 
people  about  1760,  observes, — 

••  Indolence  was  almost  the  only  comfort  they  enjoy- 
ed. There  was  scarcely  any  variety  of  wretchedness, 
with  which  they  were  not  obliged  to  struggle,  or  rath- 
er, to  which  they  were  not  obliged  to  submit.  They 
often  felt  what  it  was  to  want  food.  •  The  scantv  crops 
they  raised  were  consumed  by  their  cattle,  in  Winter 
and  Spring ;  for  a  great  part  of  the  year  they  lived 
wholly  on  miik,  and  even  that,  by  the  end  of  the  Spring 
and  the  beginning  of  Summer,  was  very  scarce.  To 
such  an  extremity  were  they  frequently  reduced,  that 
they  were  obliged  to  bleed  their  cattle,  in  order  to  sub- 
sist some  time  on  the  blood,  (boiled  :)  and  even  the 
inhabitants  of  the  glens  and  valleys  repaired  in  crowds 
to  the  shore,  at  the  distance  of  three  or  four  miles,  to 
pick  up  the  scanty  provision  which  the  shell-fish  afford- 


IMPROVEMENT  IN  FOOD,   CLOTHING,  ETC.  355 

ed  them.  Tliey  were  miserably  ill-clothed,  and  the 
huts  in  which  tliey  lived  were  dirty  and  mean,  beyond 
description.  How  diiferent  from  their  present  situa- 
tion !  They  now  enjoy  the  necessaries,  and  many  of 
the  comforts,  of  life,  in  abundance  ;  even  those  who  are 
supported  by  the  charity  of  the  parish  feel  no  real 
want."  The  southern  counties  presented  the  same 
picture  of  sloth,  poverty,  and  wretchedness.  The  late 
Rev.  Mr.  Smith,  in  his  '  Agricultural  Survey  of  Wigtown 
and  Kirkcudbright,'  published  in  1810,  gives,  on  author- 
ity of  persons  '•'  now  living,"  the  following  details,  with 
respect  to  the  state  of  husbandry,  and  the  condition  of 
the  people,  towards  the  middle  of  the  last  century : 

'•  Estates  appear  to  have  been  broken  down  into  very 
small  farms  ;  or,  where  these  were  large,  they  were  held 
in  common,  by  two,  three,  or  even  four,  different  ten- 
ants, who  divided  the  labor  and  produce  in  a  propor- 
tion corresponding  to  their  rent.  These,  v.hen  in  til- 
lage, were  sometimes  run-rigg,  when  each  had  his  pro- 
portion allotted  ;  sometimes,  the  whole  was  ploughed, 
sowed,  and  reaped,  in  common,  and  the  produce  divid- 
ed in  the  field,  barn,  or  barn-yard.  Houses  or  sheds, 
for  the  whole  cattle  of  the  farm,  never  entered  into 
their  conception.  Their  cows  were  indeed  not  un- 
comfortably lodged ;  very  often  under  the  same  roof 
with  themselves,  and  sometimes  without  any  interven- 
ing wall  or  partition.  Their  houses  were  commonly 
wretched,  dirty  hovels,  built  with  stones  and  mud ; 
thatched  with  fern  and  turf;  without  chimneys  ;  filled 
with  smoke ;  black  with  soot ;  having  low  doors,  and 
small  holes  for  windows,  with  wooden  shutters,  or,  in 
place  of  these,  often  stopped  with  turf,  straw,  or  frag- 
ments of  old  clothes. 

"  The  principal  object  of  tillage  was  to  afford  straw 
for  the  Winter  support  of  the  few  cattle  which  the  pas- 
ture (if  such  it  could  be  called)  maintained  in  Sum- 
mer. As  they  always  overstocked,  this  was  a  difficult 
task  ;  and  the  poor  starved  animals,  before  the  return 
of  Spring,  were  reduced  to  the  greatest  extremities. 


356  APPENDIX. 

Through  mere  weakness,  often  they  could  not  rise  of 
themselves.  It  was  a  constant  practice  to  gather  to- 
gether neighbors  to  lift  the  cows  or  horses,  or  to  draw 
them  out  of  the  bogs  and  quagmires  into  which  they 
were  tempted  by  the  first  appearances  of  vegetation. 

"  Nothing,  but  the  frugal,  penurious  manner  in  which 
the  peasantry  then  lived,  could  have  enabled  them  to 
subsist  and  pay  any  rent  whatever.  Their  clothing 
was  of  the  coarsest  materials ;  their  furniture  and  gar- 
dening utensils  were  often  made  by  themselves  ;  their 
food,  always  the  produce  of  their  farms,  was  little  ex- 
pensive, consisting  chiefly  of  oat-meal,  vegetables,  and 
the  produce  of  the  dairy ;  if  a  little  animal  food  was 
occasionally  added,  it  was  generally  the  refuse  of  the 
flock,  unfit  to  be  brought  to  market." 

The  situation  even  of  the  Lothians  was  but  little  bet- 
ter. So  late  as  1757,  neither  turnips,  potatoes,  clover, 
nor  cultivated  herbage  of  any  sort,  had  been  introduc- 
ed into  that  district.  The  condition  of  the  occupiers 
and  of  the  peasantry  was  also  exceedingly  depressed. 
It  is  stated  by  Mr.  Robertson,  that,  so  late  as  1765, 
mendicity  in  the  Lothians  was  so  very  prevalent,  that 
hardly  a  day  passed,  in  which  farm-houses  were  not 
visited  by  beggars,  and  hardly  a  week,  without  some 
of  them  getting  a  night's  lodging  in  the  barn. — ■'  Rural 
Recollections.' 

Such  was  the  abject  state  of  Scotland,  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  last  century  !  And  we  are  bold  to  say,  that 
the  contrast  between  the  savages,  by  whom  Kentucky 
was  formerly  occupied,  and  its  present  civilized  inhab- 
itants, is  hardly  greater  than  the  contrast  between  the 
farmers  and  laborers  of  Scotland,  in  1770,  and  those  of 
the  present  day.  The  existing  Scotch  farmers  are  dis- 
tinguished by  their  superior  intelligence  and  skill  in  ag- 
riculture, the  excellence  of  their  stock  and  implements, 
and  their  genteel,  comfortable  style  of  living.  The 
laborers,  too,  are  universally  well  fed,  and  well  clothed  ; 
their  cottages  are  generally  comfortable  and  well  fur- 
nished ;  and  they  are  all  in  the  enjoyment  of  luxuries, 


IMPROVEMENT  IN  FOOD,  CLOTHING,  ETC,     357 

that  formerly  were  never  tasted,  even  by  the  most  ex- 
tensive proprietors. 

Tlic  demand  for  butchers'  meat,  in  Scotland,  has  in- 
creased, in  the  most  extraordinary  manner.  So  late  as 
1763,  the  slaughter  of  bullocks,  for  the  supply  of  the 
public  markets,  was  a  thing  wholly  unknown,  even  in 
Glasgow,  though  the  city  had  then  a  population  of 
nearly  thirty  thousand  !  Previously  to  1775,  or  per- 
haps later,  it  was  customary  in  Edinburgh,  Glasgow, 
and  the  principal  Scotch  towns,  for  families  to  pur- 
chase, in  November,  what  would  now  be  reckoned  a 
small,  miserable,  half-fed  cow  or  ox,  the  salted  carcass 
of  which  was  the  only  butchers'  meat  they  tasted 
throughout  the  year.  In  the  smaller  towns  and  coun- 
try districts  this  practice  prevailed,  till  the  present  cen- 
tury ;  but  it  is  now  almost  every  where  abandoned. 
The  consumption  of  butchers'  meat  in  Glasgow,  as 
compared  with  the  population,  does  not  at  present  dif- 
fer materially  from  that  of  the  metropolis.  We  do  not 
indeed  believe  that  the  command  of  the  people  of  any 
country  over  food  and  all  sorts  of  conveniences,  ever 
increased,  in  any  equal  period,  half  so  rapidly  as  that 
of  the  people  of  Scotland  has  done,  since  1770. — 
McCulloch's  Statistics. 

HI.     United  States. 

An  aged  friend  states,  that  fifty-five  years  ago,  in 
Connecticut,  a  substantial  farmer  used  tea  very  rarely, 
in  his  family,  coffee  never ;  that  wheaten  bread  was 
brought  on  the  table  only  on  the  most  remarkable  oc- 
casions ;  that  there  were  no  carpets  or  umbrellas  ;  that 
almost  the  entire  raiment  worn  was  of  domestic  manu- 
facture, being  coarse  linen  or  woollen  ;  that  there  were 
no  wlieel-carriages  used,  except  that  now  and  then  a 
very  considerable  person  rode  in  a  one-horse  chaise, 
of  two  wheels,  and  rude  construction  ;  that  all  travel- 
ling was  on  foot  or  horseback  ;  that  there  was  no  stage- 
coach or  public  conveyance  for  passengers ;  that  the 
principal    food    was  beans,  pork,  and   Indian    bread ; 


358  APPENDIX. 

that  hardly  any  sugar  was  used,  except  that  made  from 
the  maple  tree  of  the  woods,  nor  any  molasses,  except 
what  they  extracted  from  cornstalks ;  that  hardly  any 
cooking  utensils  were  used,  except  a  frying-pan  and 
iron  pot ;  and  that  they  ate  almost  invariably  off  of 
wooden  trenchers,  and  drank  tea.  in  most  cases,  out  of 
wooden  cups. 

Any  person  acquainted  with  the  habits  of  this  class 
of  people,  now,  will  see  at  once,  that  the  change,  which, 
within  half  a  century,  has  taken  place  in  their  condi- 
tion, is  immense.  Wooden  bowls  and  cups  have  giv- 
en place  to  cheap,  cleanly,  and  oftentimes  to  elegant, 
earthen-ware  and  porcelain ;.  the  inmates  of  the  family 
are  clothed  with  materials  gathered  from  all  quarters 
of  the  world,  and  wrought  into  warm,  delicate  fabrics  in 
the  looms  of  England,  France,  and  America ;  wheaten 
bread  is  considered  an  indispensable  article  of  daily 
consumption ;  fresh  meat  is  used  almost  daily,  and  su- 
gar in  abundance  ;  the  potato,  and  other  garden  veg- 
etables, are  cultivated  universally,  and  form  a  grateful 
and  cheap  addition  to  the  meal,  throughout  the  year  ; 
tea  and  coflee  are  regarded  as  indispensable  ;  few  fam- 
ilies are  without  umbrellas  and  carpets ;  and  every  far- 
mer must  have  his  pleasure  wagon. 

A  newspaper  of  Albany,  bearing  date  in  17 97,  is 
now  before  me  ;  and,  among  many  other  advertisements, 
indicating  the  state  of  society  at  that  time,  I  find  cot- 
ton thread  is  advertised  by  one  person  as  a  new  arti- 
cle, and  peculiarly  valuable,  because  it  had  been  spun 
in  Rhode  Island,  by  water.  It  is  to  be  presumed,  that, 
at  this  time,  there  was  no  cotton  factory  in  the  State 
of  New  York  ;  and  that  spinning  by  water  had  just 
commenced  in  our  Country. 

IV.     Notices  of  the  Mode  of  Living  in  England,  pre- 
vious TO  THE  TIME  OF  QuEEN  ELIZABETH. 

To  enable  the  reader  to  extend  the  comparison  be 
tween  the  past  and  present  state  of  the  arts  in  England, 
some  further  notices  are  added. 


IMPROVEMENT  IN  FOOD,  CLOTHING,  ETC.  359 

1.     England,  in  the  Reign  of  Henry  the  Seventh. 

The  household  book  of  the  Duke  of  Northumber- 
land, edited  by  Bishop  Percy,  may  give  us  some  notion 
of  the  mode  of  Hfe  in  the  noblest  and  most  opulent  fam- 
ilies of  England,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. 

The  number  of  j^ersons  in  the  establisliment  was 
about  two  hundred  and  twenty,  of  whom  something 
over  fifty  were  strangers  or  guests,  daily  provided  for. 

The  average  expense  of  meat,  drink,  and  fire,  for 
each  person,  was  reckoned  at  two  pence  and  a  half- 
penny per  day,  which  Hume  supposes  would  be  equiv- 
alent to  about  fourteen  pence  in  liis  time.  These 
items  formed  two  thirds  of  the  whole  expense  of  the 
establishment. 

The  frugality,  with  which  the  household  was  man- 
aged, appears  from  the  fact,  that  no  servant  could  be 
absent  a  day,  without  having  his  mess  struck  oft';  the 
number  of  pieces  which  must  be  cut  from  every  quar- 
ter of  beef,  mutton,  pork,  or  veal,  and  even  from  fish, 
are  determined,  and  must  be  entered  or  accounted  for, 
by  the  difterent  clerks  appointed  for  that  purpose ;  no 
capons  or  other  poultry  were  allowed,  except  "  for  my 
lord's  own  mess,"  nor  were  plovers  to  be  bought  even 
for  that  purpose,  except  "  in  Christmas  and  principal 
feasts ;  and  my  lord  to  be  served  therewith,  and  none 
other,  and  to  be  bought  for  a  penny  a  piece,  or  a  penny 
half  penny,  at  most." 

The  luxuries  enjoyed  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact, 
that  the  family  had  fresh  meat  only  from  midsummer  to 
Michaelmas,  (September  twenty-ninth),  living  all  the  rest 
of  the  year  on  salted  meat,  with  few  or  no  vegetables ; 
that  710  sheets  were  used ;  that  only  forty  shillings  are  al- 
lowed for  washing  throughout  the  whole  year,  most  of 
which  seems  to  have  been  expended  on  the  linen  be- 
longing to  the  chapel ;  that  only  seventy  ells  of  linen, 
at  eight  pence  a  yard,  are  annually  allowed  for  this 
great  family,  this  linen  being  made  into  eight  table- 
cloths for  my  lord's  table,  and  one  table-cloth  for  the 


360  APPENDIX. 

knights,  the  servants  having  none ;  that  only  ninety- 
one  dozen  of  candles  and  eighty  chaldrons  of  coals 
were  allowed  for  the  establishment  through  the  year ; 
and  that  after  Lady-day  no  fires  were  permitted  in  the 
rooms,  except  '•  half-fires,  in  my  lord's  and  lady's,  and 
Lord  Piercy's,  and  the  nursery."  He  seems  to  have 
had  but  two  cooks  for  this  household  ;  to  have  occu- 
pied three  country  seats,  having  furniture  only  for  one. 
'•'No  mention,"  Hume  says,  ••  is  any  where  made  of 
plate ;  but  only  of  the  hiring  of  pewter  vessels.  The 
servants  seem  all  to  have  bought  their  own  clothes 
from  their  wages."     See  Hume,  Vol.  iii.  Note  (G.) 

2.    England,  in  the  Reign  of  Edward  the  Third,  (1365.) 

The  following  view  of  the  condition  of  the  English 
people,  in  this  reign,  is  extracted  from  a  tract  on  the 
'Rights  of  Industry,'  published  in  the  '  Workingman's 
Companion.' 

In  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Third,  Colchester,  in 
Essex,  was  considered  the  tenth  city  in  England,  in 
point  of  population.  It  then  paid  a  poll-tax  for  two 
thousand  nine  hundred  and  fifty-five  lay-persons.  In 
L31 1,  about  half  a  century  before,  the  number  of  inhab- 
itant housekeepers  was  three  hundred  and  ninety  ;  and 
the  whole  household  furniture,  utensils,  clothes,  money, 
cattle,  corn,  and  every  other  property  found  in  the 
town,  was  valued  at  £518.  I6s.  0|c?.  This  valuation 
took  place  on  occasion  of  a  subsidy  or  tax  to  the  crown, 
to  carry  on  a  war  against  France ;  and  the  particulars, 
which  are  preserved  in  the  Rolls  of  Parliament,  exhibit, 
with  great  minuteness,  the  classes  of  persons  then  in- 
habiting that  town,  and  the  sort  of  property  W'hich  each 
respectively  possessed.  The  trades  exercised  in  Col- 
chester were  the  following : — baker,  barber,  blacksmith, 
bowyer,  brewer,  butcher,  carpenter,  carter,  cobbler,  cook, 
dyer,  fisherman,  fuller,  furrier,  girdler,  glass-seller,  glov- 
er, linendraper,  mercer  and  spice-seller,  miller,  mus- 
tard and  vinegar  seller,  old-clothes-seller,  saddler,  tailor, 
tanner,    tyler,    weaver,   woodcutter,  and    woolcomber. 


IMPROVEMENT  IN  FOOD,   CLOTHING,  ETC.  361 

If  you  look  at  a  small  town,  of  the  present  day,  wiiere 
such  a  variety  of  occupations  are  carried  on,  you  will 
find  that  each  tradesman  has  a  considerable  stock  of 
commodities,  abundance  of  furniture  and  utensils, 
clothes  in  plenty,  some  plate,  books,  and  many  articles 
of  convenience  and  luxury,  to  wiiich  the  most  wealthy 
dealers  and  mechanics  of  Colchester,  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  were  utter  strangers.  That  many  places,  at 
that  time,  were  much  poorer  than  Colchester,  there  can 
be  no  doubt ;  for  here  we  see  the  division  of  labor  ^^■as 
pretty  extensive,  and  that  is  always  a  proof  that  produc- 
tion is  going  forward,  however  imperfectly.  We  see, 
too,  that  the  tradesmen  were  connected  with  manufac- 
tures, in  the  ordinary  use  of  the  term  ;  or  there  would 
not  have  been  the  dyer,  the  glover,  the  linendraper, 
the  tanner,  the  weaver,  and  the  woolcomber.  There 
must  have  been  a  demand  for  articles  of  foreign  com- 
merce, too,  in  this  town,  or  we  should  not  iiave  had  the 
spice-seller.  Yet,  with  all  these  various  occupations, 
indicating  considerable  profitable  industry,  when  com- 
pared with  earlier  stages  in  the  history  of  this  country, 
the  whole  stock  of  the  town  was  valued  at  little  more 
than  fire  hundred  pounds.  Nor  let  it  be  supposed  that 
this  smallness  of  capital  can  be  accounted  for,  by  the  dif- 
ference in  the  standard  of  money  ;  for  £518,  of  the  time 
of  Edward  the  Third,  would  amount  only  to  £1450, 
of  our  present  money,*  We  may  indeed  satisfy  our- 
selves of  the  small  extent  of  the  capital  of  individuals 
at  that  day,  by  referring  to  the  inventory  of  the  articles 
upon  wliich  the  tax  we  have  mentioned  was  laid  at 
Colchester. 

The  whole  stock  of  a  carpenter's  tools  was  valued 
at  one  shilling.  They  altogether  consisted  of  two 
broadaxes,  an  adze,  a  square,  and  a  navegor,  or  spoke- 
shave.  Rough  work  must  the  carpenter  have  been 
able  to  perform  with  these  humble  instruments ;  but, 
then,  let  it  be  remembered,  that  there  was  little  capital 

♦  Eden'a  Table  of  the  Convertible  Value  of  British  Money,  in  his 
History  of  the  Poor. 

31  S.  A. 


362  APPENDIX. 

to  pay  him  for  finer  work,  and  tliat  very  little  fine  work 
was  consequently  required.  The  three  hundred  and 
ninety  housekeepers  of  Colchester  then  lived  in  mud 
huts,  with  a  rough  door  and  no  chimney.  Harrison, 
speaking  of  the  manners  of  a  century  later  than  the 
period  we  are  describing,  says,  '•  There  were  very  few 
chimneys,  even  in  capital  towns :  the  fire  was  laid  to 
the  wall,  and  the  smoke  issued  out  at  the  roof,  or  door, 
or  window.  The  houses  were  wattled,  and  plastered 
over  with  clay  ;  and  all  the  furniture  and  utensils  were 
of  wood.  The  people  slept  on  straw  pallets,  with  a 
log  of  wood  for  a  pillow."  When  this  old  historian 
wrote,  he  mentions  the  erection  of  chimneys  as  a  mod- 
ern luxury.  We  had  improved  little  upon  our  Anglo- 
Saxon  ancestors  in  the  article  of  chimneys.  In  their 
time,  Alcuin,  an  abbot  who  had  ten  thousand  vassals, 
writes  to  the  Emperor  at  Rome,  that  he  preferred  liv- 
ing in  his  smoky  house,  to  visiting  the  palaces  of  Italy. 
This  was  in  the  ninth  century.  Five  hundred  years 
had  made  little  diflerence  in  the  chimneys  of  Colchester. 
The  nobility  had  hangings  against  the  walls,  to  keep 
out  the  wind,  which  crept  in  through  the  crevices 
which  the  builder's  bunghng  art  had  left ;  the  middle 
orders  had  no  hangings.  Shakspeare  alludes  to  this 
rough  building  of  houses,  even  in  his  time  : 

"  Imperial  Caesar,  dead,  and  turned  to  clay, 
flight  stop  a  hole,  to  keep  the  wind  away." 

Even  the  nobility  went  without  glass  to  their  win- 
dows, in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries.  '•'  Of 
old  time,"'  says  Harrison.  ••  our  countrie-houses,  instead 
of  glasse,  did  use  much  lattice,  and  that  made  either 
of  wicker,  or  fine  rifts  of  oak,  in  checkerwise."  When 
glass  was  introduced,  it  was  for  a  long  time  so  scarce, 
that  at  Alnwick  Castle,  in  1567,  the  glass  was  ordered 
to  be  taken  out  of  the  windows,  and  laid  up  in  safety, 
when  the  lord  was  absent. 

The  mercer's  stock-in-trade,  at  Colchester,  was 
much  upon  a  level  with  the  carpenter's  tools.  It  was 
somewhat  various,  but  very  limited  in  quantity.     The 


IMPROVEMENT  IN  FOOD,  CLOTHING,  ETC.  363 

whole  comprised  a  piece  of  woollen  cloth,  some  silk 
and  fine  linen,  flannel,  silk  purses,  gloves,  girdles, 
leather  purses,  and  needle-work  ;  and  it  was  altogether 
valued  at  £3  ;-or  £9,  of  our  present  money.  There 
appears  to  have  been  another  dealer  in  cloth  and  linen 
in  the  town,  whose  store  was  equally  scanty.  We 
were  not  much  improved  in  the  use  of  linen,  a  century 
later.  We  learn  from  the  Earl  of  Northumberland's 
liousehold  book,  whose  family  was  large  enough  to 
consume  one  hundred  and  sixty  gallons  of  mustard, 
during  the  Winter,  with  their  salt  meat,  that  only  sev- 
enty ells  of  linen  were  allowed  for  a  year's  consump- 
tion. In  the  fourteenth  century,  none  but  the  clergy 
and  nobility  jvore  white  linen.  As  industry  increased, 
and  the  cleanliness  of  the  middle  classes  increased  with 
it,  the  use  of  white  linen  became  more  general.  But, 
even  at  the  end  of  the  next  century,  when  printing  was 
invented,  the  paper-makers  had  the  greatest  difficulty 
in  procuring  rags  for  their  manufacture ;  and  so  careful 
were  the  people  of  every  class  to  preserve  their  linen, 
that  night-clothes  were  never  worn.  Linen  was  so  dear, 
that  Shakspeare  makes  FalstafTs  shirts  eight  shillings 
an  ell.  The  more  sumptuous  articles  of  a  mercer's 
stock  were  treasured  in  rich  families,  from  generation 
to  generation  ;  and  even  the  wives  of  the  nobility  did 
not  disdain  to  mention  in  their  wills  a  particular  article 
of  clothing,  which  they  left  to  the  use  of  a  daughter  or 
a  friend.  The  solitary  old  coat  of  a  baker  came  into 
the  Colchester  valuation  ;  nor  is  this  to  be  wondered  at, 
when  we  find  that  even  the  soldiers  at  the  battle  of 
Bannockburn,  about  this  time,  were  described  by  an 
old  rhymer  as  '■'  well  near  all  naked." 

The  household-furniture  found  in  use  amongst  the 
families  of  Colchester  consisted,  in  the  more  wealthy,  of 
an  occasional  bed,  a  brass  pot,  a  brass  cup,  a  gridiron, 
and  a  rug  or  two,  and  perhaps  a  towel.  Of  chairs  and 
tables  we  hear  nothing.  We  learn  from  the  Chronicles 
of  Brantome,  a  French  historian  of  these  days,  that 
even  the  nobility  sat  upon  chests,  in  which  they  kept 


364  APPENDIX. 

their  clothes  and  hnen.  Harrison,  whose  testimony  we 
have  aheady  given  to  the  poverty  of  these  times,  af- 
firms, that  if  a  man,  in  seven  years  after  marriage,  could 
pmchase  a  flock-bed,  and  a  sack  of  chafl'  to  rest  his 
head  upon,  he  thought  himself  as  well  lodged  as  the 
lord  of  the  town,  '  who  peradventure  lay  seldom  on  a 
bed  entirely  of  feathers.'  An  old  tenure  in  England, 
before  these  times,  binds  the  vassal  to  find  straw  even 
for  the  king's  bed.  The  beds  of  flock,  the  few  articles 
of  furniture,  the  absence  of  chairs  and  tables,  would 
have  been  of  less  consequence  to  the  comfort  and 
health  of  the  people,  if  they  had  been  clean  ;  but  clean- 
liness never  exists  without  a  certain  possession  of  do- 
mestic conveniences.  The  people  of  England,  in  the 
days  of  which  we  are  speaking,  were  not  famed  for 
their  attention  to  this  particular.  Thomas  a  Becket  was 
reputed  extravagantly  nice,  because  he  had  his  parlor 
strowed  every  day  with  clean  straw.  As  late  as  the 
reign  of  Henry  the  Eighth,  Erasmus,  a  celebrated  schol- 
ar of  Holland,  who  visited  England,  complains  that  the 
nastiness  of  the  people  was  the  cause  of  the  frequent 
plagues  that  destroyed  them  ;  and  he  says,  '  their  floors 
are  commonly  of  clay,  strowed  w^ith  rushes,  under 
which  lie,  unmolested,  a  collection  of  beer,  grease, 
fragments,  bones,  spittle,  excrements  of  dogs  and  cats, 
and  of  every  thing  that  is  nauseous.'  The  elder  Scal- 
iger,  another  scholar  who  came  to  England,  abuses  the 
people  for  giving  him  no  convenience  to  wash  his 
hands.  Glass  vessels  were  scarce,  and  pottery  was  al- 
most wholly  unknown.  The  Earl  of  Northumberland, 
whom  we  have  mentioned,  breakfasted  on  trenchers 
and  dined  on  pewter.  While  such  universal  sloven- 
liness prevailed,  as  Erasmus  has  described,  it  is  not 
likely  that  much  attention  was  generally  paid  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  mind.  Before  the  invention  of  print- 
ing, at  the  time  of  the  valuation  of  Colchester,  books 
in  manuscript,  from  their  extreme  costliness,  could  be 
purchased  only  by  princes.  The  royal  library  of  Paris, 
in  1.378,  consisted  of  nine  hundred  and  nine  volumes; 


IMPROVEMENT  IN  FOOD,  CLOTHING,  ETC.  365 

an  extraordinary  number.  The  same  library  now  com- 
prises upwards  of  four  hundred  thousand  volumes. 
But  it  may  fairly  be  assumed,  that  where  one  book 
could  be  obtained,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  by  per- 
sons of  the  working  classes,  four  hundred  thousand 
may  be  as  easily  obtained  now.  Here,  then,  was  a 
privation,  which  existed  five  hundred  years  ago,  which 
debarred  our  ancestors  from  more  profit  and  plcasfh^e, 
than  the  want  of  beds,  and  chairs,  and  hncn  ;  and 
probably,  if  this  privation  had  continued,  and  men, 
therefore,  had  not  cultivated  their  understandings,  they 
would  not  have  learnt  to  give  any  really  profitable  di- 
rection to  their  labor,  and  we  should  still  have  been  as 
scantily  supplied  with  furniture  and  clothes,  as  the  good 
people  of  Colchester,  of  whom  you  have  been  reading. 

Now,  let  us  compare  the  Colchester  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  with  the  Colchester  of  the  fourteenth,  in 
a  few  particulars. 

In  tlie  reign  of  Edward  the  Third,  Colchester  num- 
bered three  hundred  and  fifty-nine  houses  of  mud,  with- 
out chimneys,  and  with  latticed  windows.  In  the  reign 
of  William  the  Fourth,  it  has  six  hundred  and  twelve 
houses,  each  at  a  rent  above  ten  pounds.  The  houses 
below  ten  pounds  are  not  mentioned  in  the  return 
from  which  we  derive  this  information.  Houses  of  ten 
pounds  a  year  and  upwards  are,  as  }ou  know,  com- 
monly built  of  brick,  and  slated  or  tiled  ;  secured  against 
wind  and  weather;  with  glazed  windows  and  with 
chimneys ;  and  generally  well  ventilated.  The  worst 
of  these  houses  are  supplied,  as  fixtures,  with  a  great 
number  of  conveniences,  such  as  grates,  and  cupboards, 
and  fastenings.  To  many  of  such  houses,  gardens  are 
attached,  wherein  are  raised  vegetables  and  fruits,  that 
kings  could  not  command  two  centuries  ago.  Houses 
such  as  these  are  composed  of  several  rooms, — not  of 
one  room  only,  where  the  people  are  compelled  to  eat 
and  sleep,  and  perform  every  office,  perhaps  in  company 
with  pigs  and  cattle, — but  of  a  kitchen  and  often  a  par- 
lor, and  several  bedrooms.  These  rooms  are  furnish- 
31* 


366  APPENDIX. 

ed  with  tables,  and  chairs,  and  beds,  and  cooking-uten- 
sils. There  is  ordinarily,  too,  something  for  ornament 
and  something  for  instruction, — a  piece  or  two  of  china, 
silver  spoons,  books,  and  not  unfrequently  a  watch  or 
clock.  The  useful  pottery  is  abundant,  and  of  really 
elegant  forms  and  colors  ;  drinking-vessels  of  glass  are 
not  uncommon.  The  inhabitants  are  not  scantily  sup- 
plied with  clothes.  The  females  are  decently  dressed, 
having  a  constant  change  of  linen,  and  gowns  of  various 
patterns  and  degrees  of  fineness.  Some,  even  of  the 
humbler  classes,  are  not  thought  to  exceed  the  proper 
appearance  of  their  station  if  they  wear  silk.  The  men 
have  decent  working  habits,  strong  shoes  and  hats,  and 
a  respectable  suit  for  Sundays,  of  cloth  often  as  good 
as  is  worn  by  the  highest  in  the  land.  Every  one  is 
clean ;  for  no  house,  above  the  few  hovels  which  still 
deform  the  land,  is  without  soap  and  bowls  for  wash- 
ing, and  it  is  the  business  of  the  females  to  take  care 
that  the  linen  of  the  family  is  constantly  washed.  The 
children  almost  universally  receive  instruction  in  some 
public  establishment ;  and  when  the  labor  of  the  day  is 
over,  the  father  thinks  the  time  unprofitably  spent,  un- 
less he  burns  a  candle,  to  enable  him  to  read  a  book  or 
the  newspaper.  The  food  which  is  ordinarily  consum- 
ed is  of  the  best  quality.  Wheaten  bread  is  no  longer 
confined  to  the  rich  ;  animal  food  is  not  necessarily 
salted,  and  salt  meat  is  used  principally  as  a  variety ; 
vegetables  of  many  sorts  are  plenteous,  in  every  market, 
and  these,  by  a  succession  of  care,  are  brought  to  higher 
perfection  than  in  the  countries  of  more  genial  climate, 
from  which  we  have  imported  them  ;  the  productions, 
too,  of  distant  regions,  such  as  spices,  and  coflfee,  and 
tea,  are  universally  consumed,  almost  by  the  humblest  in 
the  land.  Fuel,  also,  of  the  best  quality,  is  abundant, 
and  comparatively  cheap. 

If  we  look  at  the  public  conveniences  of  a  modern 
English  town,  we  shall  find  the  same  striking  contrast. 
Water  is  brought  not  only  into  every  street,  but  into 
jvery  house ;  the  dust  and  dirt  of  a  family  is  regularly 


IMPROVEMENT   IN  FOOD,   CLOTHING,   ETC.  367 

removed,  without  bustle  or  unpleasantness  ;  the  streets 
are  paved,  and  lighted  at  night ;  roads,  in  the  highest 
state  of  excellence,  connect  the  town  with  the  whole 
kingdom,  so  that  a  man  can  travel  a  hundred  miles 
more  readily,  now,  than  he  could  ten  miles,  in  tlie  old 
time  ;  and  canal  and  sea  navigation  transport  tjie  weigh- 
tiest goods,  with  the  greatest  facility,  from  each  district 
to  the  other,  and  from  cacli  town  to  the  other,  so  that 
all  are  enabled  to  apply  their  industry  to  what  is  most 
profitable  for  cacii  and  all.  Every  man,  therefore, 
may  satisfy  his  wants,  according  to  his  means,  at  the^ 
least  possible  expense  of  the  transport  of  commodities. 
Every  tradesman  has  a  stock  ready  to  meet  the  demand ; 
and  thus  the  stock  of  a  very  moderately  wealthy  trades- 
man, of  the  Colchester  of  the  present  day,  is  worth  more 
than  all  the  stock  of  all  the  different  trades  that  were 
carried  on  in  the  same  place  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
To  effect  these  public  conveniences,  millions  of  capital 
have  been  invested,  which  sums  have  aflorded  profitable 
labor  to  millions  of  workmen.  Look  at  the  iron  trade, 
which  has  so  large  a  share  in  all  public  works.  In  the 
year  17S8,  sixty  thousand  tons  of  cast  iron  were  manu- 
factured. In  the  year  1828,  the  amount  of  the  prod- 
uce of  cast  iron  was  six  hundred  thousand  tons.  A 
large  portion  of  this  enormous  increase  has  been  ap- 
plied to  the  internal  improvement  of  the  country,  in  wa- 
ter-pipes, gas-pipes,  bridges,  rail-roads. 

But  to  allow  us  to  form  a  tolerable  estimate  of  the 
increased  production  and  accunnilation  of  this  country, 
we  must  take  a  few  general  points  of  comparison,  which 
may  enable  us  to  estimate  the  astonishing  extent  of  this 
production  and  accumulation,  more  accurately,  even, 
than  from  the  individual  case  we  have  exhibited. 

And  first,  of  the  population  of  tiie  country  ,  for  an 
increase  of  population  always  shows  an  increase  of  pro 
duction.  since  without  increased  production,  the  amount 
of  population  must  remain  stationary,  with  diminished 
production,  it  must  become  less,  and  if  there  were  no 
production,  and  therefore  no  accumulation,  population 


368  APPENDIX. 

would  be  altogether  extinguished.  Mr,  Turner,  the  his- 
torian of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  has  estimated,  from  '  Domes- 
day Book,'  that  the  population  of  England  at  the  time 
of  the  Norman  Conquest  somewhat  exceeded  two  mil- 
lions. It  has  been  estimated,  by  Mr,  Chalmers,  that  in 
1377,  the  population  did  not  exceed  2,350,000  souls. 
There  was  an  increase,  therefore,  of  only  the  third  of  a 
million,  in  three  centuries  and  a  half.  From  1377  to 
1821,  a  period  of  four  centuries  and  a  half,  the  popula- 
tion of  England  had  increased  to  nearly  twelve  millions, 
or  five  times  the  amount  of  the  population  of  1377. 
The  increased  production  of  the  country  must  have 
gone  forward  in  the  same  proportion,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  much  greater  comparative  increase  of  production 
demanded  by  the  change  for  the  better  in  the  habits  of 
every  class  of  the  consumers.  We  have  no  materials  for 
comparing  the  general  production  of  five  hundred  years 
ago  with  the  general  production  of  the  present  day; 
yet  every  man  may  compare,  in  his  own  mind,  the  state 
in  which  he  himself  lives,  and  the  state  in  which  the 
people  of  Colchester  lived,  at  the  time  we  have  de- 
scribed. To  assist  this  comparison,  we  will  furnish  a 
few  particulars  of  the  present  home  consumption  of 
the  kingdom,  in  the  great  staple  articles  of  her  com- 
merce and  manufactures.  We  only  take  those  articles 
which  can  be  accurately  estimated. 

Of  xoheat,  fifteen  million  quarters  are  annually  con- 
sumed in  Great  Britian,  This  is  about  a  quarter  of 
wheat  to  each  individual.*  Of  malt,  twenty-five  mil- 
lion bushels  are  annually  used  in  breweries  and  distil- 
leries in  the  United  Kingdom  ;  and  there  are  forty-six 
thousand  acres  under  cultivation  with  hops.  Of  the 
quantity  of  potatoes  and  other  vegetables  consumed, 
we  have  no  accounts.  Of  meat,  about  one  million  two 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  head  of  cattle,  sheep,  and 
pigs,  are  sold  during  the  year,  in  Smithfield  market 
alone,  which  is  probably  about  a  tenth  of  the  consump- 

*  This  calculation  does  not  include  Ireland,  as  the  subsequent  esti- 
mates do. 


IMPROVEMENT  IN  FOOD,  CLOTHING,  ETC     369 

tion  of  the  whole  kingdom.  The  quantity  of  tea  con- 
sumed in  the  United  Kingdom  is  about  thirty  milhon 
pounds  annually.  Of  sugar,  nearly  four  million  hun- 
dred-weights, or  about  five  hundred  million  pounds,  ev- 
ery year,  which  is  a  consumption  of  twenty  pounds  for 
every  individual,  reckoning  the  population  at  twenty- 
five  millions  ;  and  of  coffee,  about  twenty  million  pounds 
are  annually  consumed.  Of  soap,  one  hundred  and 
fourteen  million  pounds  are  consumed  ;  and  of  candles, 
about  a  hundred  and  seventeen  million  pounds.  Of 
sea-borne  coals  alone  there  arc  about  three  million 
^chaldrons  consumed,  in  England  and  Wales ;  and  it  is 
estimated  that,  adding  the  coals  of  the  great  coal  fields 
of  South  Wales,  of  Yorkshire,  Lancashire,  and  the  mid- 
land counties,  each  person  of  the  population  consumes 
a  chaldron  throughout  the  kingdom.  Of  clothing,  we 
annually  manufacture  about  two  hundred  million  pounds 
of  cotton  wool,  which  produce  twelve  hundred  million 
yards  of  calico  and  various  other  cotton  fabrics,  and  of 
these  we  export  about  a  third  ;  so  that  eight  hundred 
million  yards  remain  for  home  consumption,  being 
about  thirty-two  yards,  annually,  for  each  person.  The 
woollen  manufacture  consumes  about  thirty  million 
pounds  of  wool.  Of  hides  and  skins,  about  fifty  mil- 
lions are  annually  tanned  and  dressed.  Of  paper, 
about  fifty  million  pounds  are  yearly  manufactured, 
which  is  about  two  million  reams,  of  five  hundred  sheets 
to  the  ream. 

To  carry  on  the  commerce  of  this  country  with  for- 
eign nations,  and  between  distant  parts  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  there  are  twenty  thousand  ships,  in  constant 
employ,  belonging  to  our  own  merchants.  To  carry  on 
the  commerce  with  ourselves,  the  total  length  of  our 
turnpike  roads  is  twenty-five  thousand  miles,  and  tinee 
tliousand  miles  of  canals.  To  produce  food  for  the  in- 
habitants of  the  country,  we  have  forty  miMion  acres  un- 
der cultivation.  To  clothe  them,  we  have  millions  of 
spindles,  worked  by  steam,  instead  of  a  few  thousands. 
♦urncd  by  hand,  as  they  were  a  century  ago.     The  fixed 


370  APPENDIX. 

capital  of  the  country  insured  in  fire-offices,  that  insu- 
rance being  far  short  of  its  real  amount,  is  above  five 
hundred  milhon  pounds  sterling.  The  fixed  capital  un- 
insured, or  not  represented  by  this  species  of  insurance, 
is  perhaps  as  much.  The  capital  expended  in  improve- 
ment in  land  is,  we  should  conceive,  equal  to  the  capital 
which  is  represented  by  houses,  and  furniture,  and  ship- 
ping, and  stocks  of  goods.  The  public  capital  of  the 
country  expended  in  roads,  canals,  docks,  harbors,  and 
buildings,  is  equal  to  at  least  half  the  private  capital. 
All  this  capital  is  the  accumulated  labor  of  two  thous- 
and years,  when  the  civilization  of  the  country  first 
began.  The  greater  portion  of  it  is  the  accumulated 
labor  of  the  last  four  hundred  years,  when  labor  and 
capital,  through  the  partial  abolition  of  slavery,  first  be- 
gan to  work  together  with  freedom,  and  therefore  with 
energy  and  skill.  We  might  show  you  the  objects  to 
which  this  succession  of  labor,  working  with  accumu- 
lation, has  been  applied,  and  the  instruments  with  which 
these  two  great  powers  have  Avorked." 

It  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  have  some  further  no- 
tices of  the  condition  of  the  English  people  in  the  four- 
teenth century.  Baker,  in  his  Chronicle,  (page  128.) 
tells  us,  that  in  the  "  parliament  holden  in  thirty-sev- 
enth of  Edward  the  Third,  certain  sumptuary  laws 
were  ordained,  both  for  apparel  and  diet ;  appointing 
every  degree  of  men  the  stufte  and  habits  they  should 
wear,  prohibiting  the  ivearing  of  gold,  silver,  silks, 
and  rich  furs,  to  all  but  eminent  persons.  The  la- 
borer and  husbandman  is  appointed  but  one  meal  a 
day,  and  what  meats  he  should  eat." 

While  these  restrictions  were  laid  on  the  common 
people,  what  were  the  habits  of  their  superiors  ?  Fam- 
ines occurred  almost  every  year,  and  yet  we  read,  in 
Mathew  Paris,  (see  Henry,  vol.  iv.  page  511,)  that,  at 
the  installation  of  Ralph,  Abbot  of  St.  Augustine,  Can- 
terbury, six  thousand  guests  were  entertained  at  a  din- 
ner consisting  of  three  thousand  dishes  ;  that  "  it  would 
require  a  long  treatise  to  describe  the  astonishing  splen- 


IMPROVEMENT  IN  FOOD,  CLOTHING,  ETC.     371 

dor  and  festivity  with  which  the  nuptials  of  Richard, 
Earl  of  Cornwall,  were  celebrated  at  London.  To 
give  the  reader  some  idea  of  it,  in  few  words,  above 
thirty  thousand  dishes  were  served  up  at  the  marriage- 
dinner  ;"  and  the  writer  states,  that,  at  another  marriage- 
feast,  made  on  occasion  of  the  marriage,  at  York,  of  a 
daughter  of  the  King  of  England,  "  the  Archbishop  of 
York  made  the  King  of  England  a  present  of  sixty  fat 
oxen,  which  made  only  one  article  of  provision  for  the 
feast,  and  were  all  consumed  at  that  entertainment." 

Chaucer,  in  the  'Parson's  Tale,'  complains  that  "  pride 
of  the  table  appereth  full  ofte  ;  for  certes  riche  men 
be  called  to  festes,  and  pore  folks  ben  put  away  and 
rebuked.  And  also  in  excess  of  divers  metes  and 
drinkes ;  and  namely  such  maner  bake  metes,  and  dish 
metes  brenning'of  wild  fire  peynted  and  castelled  with 
paper  and  samblable  waste,  so  that  it  is  abusion  to 
think." 

In  regard  to  dress,  Mathew  Paris  states,  that,  at  the 
marriage  above  referred  to,  of  a  daughter  of  Henry  the 
Third  of  England,  the  King  was  attended  by  one  thous- 
and knights,  uniformly  dressed  in  silk  robes;  "and  the 
next  day,  these  knights  appeared  in  new  dresses,  no  less 
splendid  and  expensive." 

Of  the  clergy,  Chaucer  says, — 

"  They  hie  on  horse  willeth  to  ride 
In  glitterande  golde  of  grete  arai, 
Peynted  and  portrid  all  in  pride, 
No  common  knight  maye  go  so  gale  ; 
Chaunge  of  clothing  every  daie, 
With  golden  girdeis  great  and  small." 

Henry,  vol.  iv.  page  508,  thus  describes  the  dress  oi 
an  English  beau  of  the  fourteenth  century :  "  He  wore 
long  pointed  shoes,  fastened  to  his  knees  by  gold  or 
silver  chains ;  hose  of  one  color  on  one  leg,  and  of  an- 
other color  on  the  other  ;  short  breeches,  which  did  not 
reach  to  the  middle  of  his  thighs,  and  disclosed  the 
shape  of  all  the  parts  included  in  them ;  a  coat,  one 
half  white  and  the  other  half  black  or  blue  ;   a  long 


372  APPENDIX. 

beard ;  a  silk  hood,  buttoned  under  his  chin,  embroid 
ered  with  grotesque  figures  of  animals,  dancing  men, 
&c.,  and  sometimes  ornamented  with  gold,  silver,  and 
precious  stones.  This  dress,  which  was  the  very  top 
of  the  mode  in  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Third,  appear- 
ed so  ridiculous  to  the  Scots,  (^vho  probably  could  not 
afford  to  be  such  egregious  fops,)  that  they  made  the 
following  satirical  verses  upon  it : 

"  Longbierds  hirtiless, 
Peynted  whoods  witles, 
Gay  cotes  gracieles, 
Maketh  England  thriftieles." 

The  dress  of  the  gay  and  fashionable  ladies,  who  fre- 
quented the  public  diversions  of  those  times,  was  not 
more  decent  or  becoming.  It  is  flius  described  by 
Knyghton,  A.  D.  1348 : 

"  These  tournaments  are  attended  by  many  ladies  of 
the  first  rank  and  greatest  beauty,  but  not  always  of  the 
most  untainted  reputation.  These  ladies  are  dressed 
in  party-colored  tunics,  one  half  being  of  one  color  and 
the  other  half  of  another ;  their  lirripipes,  or  tippets, 
are  very  short ;  their  caps  remarkably  little,  and  wrapt 
about  their  heads  with  cords  ;  their  girdles  and  pouches 
are  ornamented  with  gold  and  silver ;  and  they  wore 
short  swords,  called  daggers,  before  them ;  they  are 
mounted  on  the  finest  horses  with  the  richest  furniture. 
Thus  equipped,  they  ride  from  place  to  place,  in  quest 
of  tournaments,  by  which  they  dissipate  their  fortunes, 
and  sometimes  ruin  their  reputations." 

The  head-dresses  of  the  ladies  underwent  many 
changes  in  the  course  of  this  period.  They  were  some- 
times enormously  high,  rising  almost  three  feet  above 
the  head,  in  the  shape  of  sugar-loaves,  with  streamers 
of  fine  silk  flovving  from  the  top  of  them  to  the  ground. 
Upon  the  whole,  I  am  fully  persuaded,  that  we  have 
no  good  reason  to  pay  any  compliments  to  our  ances- 
tors of  this  period,  at  the  expense  of  our  contempora- 
ries, either  for  the  frugality,  elegance,  or  decency,  of 
their  dress.     The  common  people  in  Wales  (where  the 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTICES.  373 

arts  had  made  little  progress)  were  very  imperiectly 
clothed  in  this  period.  The  Welshmen  in  the  army 
of  Edward  the  Second  were  known,  in  their  flight  from 
the  battle  of  Bannockburn,  by  the  meanness  of  their 
dress. 

"  Sir  Maurice  also,  the  Barclay, 
Fra  the  great  battle  hed  his  way  ; 
With  a  great  rout  of  Walishmen, 
Where'er  they  yied  men  might  them  ken  ; 
For  they  well  near  ail  naked  were. 
Or  linen  clothies  had  but  mare." 

V.     Miscellaneous  Notices. 

To  illustrate  the  mode  of  transport  for  persons  and 
goods,  and  the  style  of  living,  whicii  prevailed  in  the  time 
of  Henry  the  Fourth,  we  may  read  Shakspcare,  who  is 
true  to  the  circumstances  of  the  times.  From  the  dis- 
course of  the  two  carriers  in  tiie  inn-yard  at  llocliester. 
we  find  that  they  were  on  horseback,  witli  panniers  ; 
that  "  the  one  had  a  gammon  of  bacon  and  two  cases 
of  ginger,  to  be  delivered  as  far  as  Charing-cross  ;"  that 
"  the  turkeys  in  the  pannier  of  the  other  were  quite 
starved ;"  ancl  that  travellers  of  different  quality  and 
rank  were  in  the  habit  of  travelling  in  companies,  for 
mutual  protection. 

From  other  sources  we  learn,  that,  at  this  period,  and 
for  some  time  after,  barley  and  beans  formccl  the  staple 
food  of  the  people  ;  that,  though  wheat  might  be  bought 
for  six  sliillings  and  eight  pence  a  quarter,  just  after  har- 
vest, yet,  owing  to  the  improvidence  of  tlie  consumers, 
and  the  want  of  corn-merchants,  it  became  so  scarce 
before  the  next  harvest,  that  it  was  not  unusual  to  pay 
eighty  shillings  the  quarter ;  that  even  convents,  which 
we  have  been  accustomed  to  associate  with  well-fed 
monks,  who  rioted  in  abundance,  could  aflbrd  their 
inmates,  for  long  periods,  nothing  better  than  oatmeal 
and  beans,  and  these  with  the  greatest  difficulty.  We 
learn,  that  the  corn  was  usually  ground  at  home,  in  a 
quern,  or  handmill,  and  that,  even  a  century  ago,  it  was 
found  impossible,  on  a  certain  occasion,  to  procure  a 
32  s.  A. 


374  APPENDIX. 

loaf  of  wheaten  bread  at  any  shop  in  one  of  the  largest 
towns  of  the  north  of  England.  (Carlisle.) 

So  with  meat.  The  great  proportion  of  the  people 
had  but  little,  even  in  England ;  in  France,  none,  the 
French  peasantry  living  on  apples,  water,  and  rye- 
bread.  The  gentry,  during  the  long  Winters,  had  rare- 
ly any  thing  better  than  salted  meat  and  fish  ;  there 
being  no  provision,  in  the  system  of  farming  then  prac- 
tised, for  stall-feeding,  and  of  course  nothing,  in  fact,  to 
answer  to  the  magnificent  ideas  which  we  have  been 
accustomed  to  form  of  the  roast  beef  of  Old  England. 
The  roast  beef  of  Old  England  was,  in  truth,  a  chine 
of  salted  beef  boiled.  This  was  the  principal  standing 
dish  on  the  table  of  my  lord  and  lady,  morning,  noon, 
and  night ;  it  being  surmounted  by  a  loaf  of  bread,  two 
manchets,  a  quart  of  beer,  and  a  quart  of  wine.  Coffee, 
which  was  not  introduced  into  England  till  the  seven- 
teenth century,  was  regarded  with  so  much  aversion  by 
many  good  people,  as  to  have  been  formally  denounced, 
and  that,  too,  in  good  set  terms,  from  the  pulpit.  Many 
sermons  seem  to  have  been  aimed,  about  this  time,  at 
coffee  and  tobacco,  as  equally  pernicious  and  offensive. 
The  following  is  an  extract  from  one  of  them  :  ••  They 
cannot  wait  till  the  smoke  of  the  infernal  regions  sur- 
rounds them,  but  encompass  themselves  with  smoke  of 
their  own  accord,  and  drink  poison,  which  God  made 
black,  that  it  might  bear  the  devil's  color." 

Another  passage,  from  the  letters  of  a  cardinal,  (Da- 
miani.)  written  about  the  eleventh  century,  will  show 
what,  in  the  estimation  of  the  eminences  of  that  day, 
was  luxury.  Writing  to  the  Lady  Blanche,  once  a 
petty  Princess,  who  had  entered  a  convent,  and  warn- 
ing her  of  the  great  danger  of  setting  her  heart  on  lux- 
urious living,  he  proceeds  to  tell  her  a  story,  which  he 
had  heard  from  a  person  of  veracity.  '•  The  Doge  of 
Venice  had  married  a  lady  of  Constantinople,  whose 
luxury,"  says  he,  •■'  surpassed  all  imagination.  She 
would  not  even  wash  in  common  water,  but  had  the 
cruelty  to  compel  her  servants  to  collect  rain-water  for 


MANUFACTURE   OF   AMERICAN  IRON.  375 

her !"  Her  chamber  was  perfumed  witli  aromatics,  so 
many  in  number,  that  Damiani  is  quite  ashamed  to 
mention  them,  and  no  one  would  beheve  him  if  he  did. 
But,  what  was  most  monstrous,  this  wicked  creature 
would  not  eat  with  her  Hngcrs,  but  absolutely  had  her 
food  cut  into  pieces,  rather  small,  by  her  attendants, 
and  then, — "  she  conveyed  them  to  her  mouth  with  cer- 
tain golden  two-pronged  forks/' 

The  ladies  of  that  day  do  not  seem  to  have  confined 
their  extravagance  to  the  use  of  rain-water  and  forks  ; 
in  another  respect,  they  provoked  the  displeasure  of 
their  ecclesiastical  superiors  ;  and,  in  the  hope  that  the 
indignant  remonstrance  of  good  Bishop  Pilkington,  one 
of  the  polemics  of  the  time,  may  not  be  lost  upon 
the  fair  of  our  own  day,  we  quote  one  of  his  reproofs. 
It  is  directed  against  "  five-fingered  rufflers,  with  their 
sables  about  their  necks,  corked  slippers,  trimmed  bus- 
kins, and  warm  mittens.''  "  These  tender  Parnels,"  he 
says,  "  must  have  one  gown  for  the  day,  anotiier  for 
the  night ;  one  long,  another  short ;  one  for  Winter, 
another  for  Summer ;  one  furred  through,  another  but 
faced ;  one  for  the  work-day,  another  for  the  holyday  ; 
one  of  this  color,  another  of  that ;  one  of  cloth,  another 
of  silk  or  damask.  Change  of  apparel,  one  afore  din- 
ner, another  after  ;  one  of  Spanish  fashion,  another  of 
Turkey ;  and,  to  be  brief,  never  content  with  enough, 
but  always  devising  new  fashions  and  strange.  Yea,  a 
ruffian  will  have  more  in  his  ruflf  and  his  hose  than  he 
should  spend  in  a  year :  he  which  ought  to  go  in  a  rus- 
set coat  spends  as  much  on  apparel,  for  him  and  his 
wife,  as  his  father  would  have  kept  a  good  house  with." 


376  APPENDIX. 

VII.     Page  189. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  A»IERICAN  IRON, 

The  following  remarks  of  Nicholas  Biddle,  Esq.,  on 
the  manufacture  of  American  iron,  will  be  read  with 
interest. 

I  need  not  say  that  the  two  substances,  which  have 
most  contributed  to  the  comfort  and  civilization  of  the 
world,  are  coal  and  iron.  The  naturalists  have  asserted, 
that  the  chief  ingredient  of  the  ricliest  precious  stones  is 
carbon  ;  and  that,  after  all,  a  diamond  and  a  coal  are 
the  same  thing.  The  comparison  disparages  the  coal, 
since  certainly,  for  every  purpose  of  human  comfort  or 
enjoyment,  the  coal  outweighs  all  the  gems  that  ever 
glistened  at  all  the  coronations  of  all  the  sovereigns  of 
the  earth.  As  to  iron,  is  it  not  far  more  valuable  than 
all  the  miscalled  precious  metals  ?  The  best  friend  of 
man ;  his  companion  in  every  stage  of  his  civilization, 
from  the  rough  ploughshare  to  the  complicated  steam- 
ship. These  elements  of  wealth,  the  coal  and  the  iron 
ores,  were  scattered  profusely  over  this  country,  but 
some  inexplicable  mystery  kept  them  asunder.  The 
coal,  in  its  fiercest  intensity,  could  make  no  impression 
upon  these  impenetrable  masses,  and  the  adjoining  hills 
which  contained  them  frowned  on  each  other,  as  up- 
on neighbors  who  could  never  be  united.  At  length, 
by  one  of  those  happy  inspirations  which  confound  all 
reasonings,  the  whole  obstacle  was  removed,  in  a  way 
so  simple,  that  every  body  wonders  it  was  never  dream- 
ed of  till  now.  When  these  ores  and  coal  were  put 
together  in  a  furnace,  the  fire  was  kept  up  by  a  stream 
of  cold  air.  To  this  process  the  ores  refused  to  yield. 
At  last,  a  projector  tried  what  impression  he  could  make 
by  a  stream  of  hot  air,  and  the  ores  instantly  gave  up 
their  treasure^  like  the  traveller  in  the  fable,  who  only 
wrapped  himself  the  closer  at  the  cold  wind,  but  could 
not  resist  the  sunshine.     And  this,  after  all,  is  the  great 


MANUFACTURE  OF  AMERICAN  IRON.  377 

mystery, — the  substitution  of  what  is  called  the  hot  blast 
for  the  cold  blast. 

Let  us  see  the  changes  which  tliis  simple  discovery 
is  destined  to  make.  As  long  as  the  iron  ores  and  the 
coal  of  the  anthracite  region  were  incapable  of  fusion, 
the  ores  were  entirely  useless,  and  the  coal  nearly  una- 
vailable for  manufactures,  while,  as  tlie  disappearance 
of  the  timber  made  charcoal  very  expensive,  tiie  iron 
of  Eastern  Pennsylvania  was  comparatively  small  in 
quantity  and  high  in  price,  and  the  defective  commu- 
nications with  the  interior  made  its  transportation  very 
costly.  Tiie  result  was,  that,  with  all  the  materials  of 
supplying  iron  in  our  own  hands,  the  country  has  been 
obliged  to  pay  enormous  sums  to  Europeans  for  this 
necessary.  In  two  years,  alone,  1836— 7,  the  importa- 
tions of  iron  and  steel  amounted  to  upwards  of  twenty- 
four  millions  of  dollars.  The  importations  for  the  last 
five  years  iiave  been  about  forty-nine  millions  of  dollars. 
It  is  especially  mortifying  to  see,  that,  even  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, there  lias  been  introduced,  within  the  last  seven 
years,  exclusive  of  hardware  and  cutlery,  nearly  eighty 
thousand  tons  of  iron  ;  and  that,  of  these,  there  were 
about  forty-nine  thousand  tons  of  rail-road  iron,  costing 
probably  three  millions  and  a  half  of  dollars.  Nay,  at 
this  very  day,  in  visiting  your  mines,  we  see,  at  the 
furthest  depths  of  these  subterranean  passages,  the  very 
coal  and  iron  brought  to  the  mouth  of  the  mines  on 
tracks  of  British  iron,  manufactured  in  Britain,  and  sent 
to  us  from  a  distance  of  three  thousand  miles.  This 
dependence  is  deplorable.  It  ought  to  cease  for  ever ; 
and  let  us  hope,  tliat,  with  the  new  power  this  day  ac- 
quired, we  shall  rescue  ourselves,  hereafter,  from  sucli  a 
costly  humiliation.  We  owe  it  to  ourselves,  not  thus  to 
throw  away  the  bounties  of  Providence,  wjiich,  in  these 
very  materials,  have  blessed  us  with  profusion  wholly 
imknown  elsewhere. 

Tlie  United  States  contain,  according  to  the  best  es- 
timates, not  less  than  ciglity  thousand  square  miles  of 
coal,  which  is  about  sixteen  times  as  much  as  the  coal 
32* 


378  APPENDIX. 

measures  of  all  Europe.  A  single  one  of  these  gigantic 
masses  runs  about  nine  hundred  miles  from  Pennsylva- 
nia to  Alabama,  and  must  itself  embrace  fifty  thousand 
square  miles,  equal  to  the  whole  surface  of  England 
proper.  Confining  ourselves  to  Pennsylvania  alone, 
out  of  fifty-four  counties  of  the  State,  no  less  than  thir- 
ty have  coal  and  iron  in  them.  Out  of  the  forty-four 
thousand  square  miles,  which  form  the  area  of  Penn- 
sylvania, there  are  ten  thousand  miles  of  coal  and  iron, 
while  all  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  have  only  two  thous- 
and ;  so  that  Pennsylvania  has  five  times  as  much  coal 
and  iron  as  the  country  to  which  we  annually  pay  eight 
or  ten  millions  of  dollars  for  iron. 

Again,  the  anthracite  coal  fields  of  Pennsylvania  are 
six  or  eight  times  as  large  as  those  of  South  AVales. 
Of  these  great  masses,  it  may  be  said,  confidently,  that 
the  coal  and  the  iron  are  at  least  as  rich  in  quality, 
and  as  abundant  in  quantity,  as  those  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, with  this  most  material  distinction  in  their  favor, 
that  they  lie  above  the  water  level,  and  are  easily  ac- 
cessible, while  many  of  the  mines  of  England  are  a 
thousand  or  fifteen  hundred  feet  below  the  surface. 

With  these  resources,  you  have  abundant  employ- 
ment, if  you  could  only  supply  the  present  wants  of  the 
country,  for  which  we  are  now  dependent  upon  foreign- 
ers. But  the  sphere  of  demand  is  every  day  widen- 
ing, for  the  consumption  of  iron.  The  time  has  come, 
when  nothing  but  iron  roads  will  satisfy  the  impatience 
of  travellers,  and  the  competition  of  trade.  The  time 
is  approaching,  when  iron  ships  will  supplant  these 
heavy,  short-lived,  and  inflammable,  structures  of  wood 
We  shall  not  long  be  content  to  cover  our  houses  with 
strips  of  wood,  under  the  name  of  shingles,  prepared 
for  the  first  spark,  if  we  can  have  low-priced  iron  ;  in 
which  event,  too,  the  present  pavements  of  our  towns 
would  be  superseded  by  footways  of  iron. 

The  only  difficulty  which  is  suggested  is  the  high 
price  of  labor  in  this  country.  Allow  me  to  say,  that 
I  consider  this  a  misapprehension.     The  high  rate  of 


MANUFACTURE   OF   AMERICAN  IRON.  379 

wages  is  always  put  forward  as  the  obstacle  to  any  ef- 
fort to  make  for  ourselves  what  we  import ;  but  I  do 
not  beUeve  that  it  ever  made  any  serious  obstacle  in 
practice.  I  believe,  on  the  contrary,  that  in  any  com- 
parison between  the  price  of  labor  in  England  and  tlie 
United  States,  if  we  consider,  not  the  nominal  price 
paid  to  the  laborer,  but  the  amount  of  work  actually 
done  for  a  given  sum  of  money,  and  if  we  regard  the 
English  poor  rates,  which  are  only  a  disguised  addition 
to  the  rate  of  wages,  we  shall  arrive  at  the  conclusion, 
that  labor  is  yet  very  little,  if  at  all,  higher  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  than  in  England.  I  know  that  one  of  the 
most  respectable  and  intelligent  farmers  among  us,  an 
Englishman,  who,  after  farming  in  liis  own  country,  fin- 
ished his  career  a  farmer  in  my  neighborhood,  declared, 
that,  although  he  seemed  to  pay  a  higher  rate  of  wages, 
yet,  on  the  whole,  the  labor  of  his  farm  was  done  twen- 
ty per  cent,  cheaper  in  Philadelphia  county,  than  it  had 
been  done  in  England.  Since  my  arrival  here,  I  have 
had  occasion  to  compare  the  rates  of  wages  given  in 
our  collieries  with  those  of  England,  and,  although  they 
are  nominally  somewhat  higher,  tlie  diftereirce  w'ould 
not  materially  affect  large  operations. 

Having,  then,  the  material  and  the  labor,  it  remains 
to  ask,  if  you  have  the  industry  to  follow  out  tliis  new 
career.  Need  I  ask  that  question,  in  such  an  active 
community  as  this  ?  Nay,  you  would  not  belong  to 
tills  American  nation,  if  you  had  a  particle  of  sloth  in 
you.  Our  manners,  and  habits,  and  customs,  have  been 
often  described,  but  I  venture  to  say,  that  no  descrip- 
tion will  approach  the  truth,  unless  it  begins  and  ends 
with  the  declaration,  that  the  Americans  are  tlie  hard- 
est working  people  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  Other 
nations  labor  in  order  to  live  ;  the  Americans  seem  to 
live  only  to  labor.  To  exist,  and  not  to  toil,  is  incom- 
prehensible. They  cheerfully  acquiesce  in  the  doom  of 
Providence,  and,  instead  of  repining  at  being  condemned 
to  labor,  tiicy  would  deem  the  heaviest  curse  to  be  re- 
pose.    Every  man  seems  born  with  some  steam-engine 


380  APPENDIX. 

within  him,  driving  him  into  an  incessant  and  restless 
activity  of  body  and  mind.  All  the  amusements  which 
require  time  ;  the  luxurious  indulgences  which  con- 
sume it ;  the  absurdity  of  quiet ;  the  unnatural  condi- 
tion of  rest ;  all  these  he  scorns,  as  unworthy  of  men 
whose  destiny  it  is  to  create,  and  to  build  up,  and  to 
found,  works,  and  cities,  and  states.  Here  is  a  whole 
nation,  with  few  rich  men,  and  no  idle  men  ;  every 
head  and  every  hand  busy,  with  a  thousand  projects, 
and  only  one  holyday, — the  Fourth  of  July, — working 
from  morning  till  night,  with  the  most  intense  industry. 
Yet  it  is  not  merely  a  sordid  spirit  which  impels  them ; 
for  what  they  earn  thus  hardly,  they  spend  with  a 
recklessness  quite  as  characteristic.  They  work,  not 
to  accumulate,  but  because  they  must  work,  or  die  of 
apathy.  Such  a  temperament  is  inseparable  from  many 
folhes,  and  leads  to  many  vices  ;  but,  after  all,  it  is  the 
true  instinct  to  achieve  great  things,  and  whenever  it 
becomes  concentrated  on  some  favorite  object,  wo  to 
the  rival  whose  path  it  crosses  ! 

My  hope,  therefore,  is,  that  when  the  country  shall 
see  what  marvellous  results  will  repay  its  industry,  in 
their  new  career,  it  will  enter  upon  it  with  its  charac- 
teristic energ}'.  If  coal  and  iron  have  made  Great  Brit- 
ain what  she  is  ;  if  they  have  given  to  her  the  power  of 
four  hundred  millions  of  men,  and  impelled  the  manu- 
factories which  made  us,  like  the  rest  of  the  world,  her 
debtors ;  why  should  not  we,  with  at  least  equal  advan- 
tages, make  them  the  instruments  of  our  own  indepen 
dence  ? 

To  begin  that  great  Avork,  no  time  would  be  more 
proper  than  the  present.  Nations  seem  subject  to  the 
same  laws  as  individuals,  and  they  must  go  through 
the  same  diseases  which  afflict  infancy ;  the  same  pas- 
sions which  mislead  youth  ;  the  same  infirmities  which 
distress  old  age.  It  is,  therefore,  a  subject  rather  of 
regret  than  surprise,  that  the  last  few  years  have  been 
years  of  great  national  extravagance.  We  have  bought 
far  too  much  from  foreimi  nations,  and  have  indulored 


MANUFACTURE  OF  AMERICAN  IRON.  381 

with  a  cliildish  excess,  in  all  the  luxurious  follies  of 
the  old  world.  Look  only  where  this  lias  led  us.  Dur- 
ing the  last  ten  years,  we  have  imported  about  one 
hundred  and  eighteen  millions  of  dollars  of  silks,  and 
more  than  forty-one  millions  of  dollars  of  wines  and 
spirits,  making  an  aggregate  of  more  than  one  hundred 
and  fifty-nine  millions,  for  articles  of  the  merest  luxury. 
If  we  had  been  able  to  barter  for  these  the  grain  and 
the  iron  which  are  within  our  reach,  we  might  have 
made  our  industry  some  apology  for  our  extravagance. 
But,  during  the  same  time,  the  productions  of  our  farms 
were  rigorously  excluded  from  Great  Britain,  and  we 
imported  more  than  eighty-four  millions  of  dollars  of 
iron.     Here,  then,  are 

Payments  for  silks,  of    ....    0118,000,000 

Wines  and  spirits,  of 41,000,000 

And  for  iron, 84,000,000 

Making  a  sum,  for  necessaries  and 

luxuries,  of 0243,000,000 

paid,  in  fact,  for  things  whicii  we  should  have  supplied, 
ourselves,  or  have  dispensed  with  altogether.  And 
having  done  all  this,  we  wonder  that  we  are  so  much  in 
debt !  Fortunately,  too,  if  young  nations  have  the  er- 
rors, they  have  the  elastic  spirit  and  resources,  of  youth  ; 
and  if  we  only  cease  the  extravagant  importation  of 
luxuries,  and  cultivate  our  own  resources,  we  shall  soon 
recover  from  these  temporary  embarrassments. 

To  no  part  of  the  Union  will  such  a  change  be  more 
beneficial  than  to  our  own  Pennsylvania.  With  the 
zeal  ciiaracteristic  of  our  American  temperament,  she 
has  gone  too  suddenly  into  great  public  improvements, 
beyond  the  immediate  wants  of  the  State.  The  neces- 
sity, too,  of  winning  over  to  any  general  system  the 
aid  of  particular  portions  of  the  State,  has  induced  her 
to  commence  too  many  works  at  one  time;  and,  un- 
fortunately, she  has  too  often  had,  as  counsellors,  the 
two  most  expensive  advisers  in  all  great  enterprises,  ig- 
norance and  parsimony ;  tiie  one  directing  blindly,  the 


382  APPENDIX. 

Other  executing  badly.  I  think  it  may  be  said,  with* 
out  reflecting  harshly  on  errors,  of  wliich  we  must  now 
all  bear  our  share,  that  all  the  works  executed  for  the 
developement  of  our  Pennsylvania  resources  ought  to 
have  been  made  for  two  thirds  of  what  they  have  ac- 
tually cost ;  and  that  our  debt,  instead  of  thirty-two  mil- 
lions, ought  not,  at  this  day,  to  have  exceeded  twenty- 
two  millions.  But  there  it  is,  and  we  have  nothing  to 
do  but  to  pay  it ;  pay  it,  cheerfully  and  honestly ;  by 
ordinary  revenue,  if  we  can,  by  taxes,  if  we  must.  Af- 
ter all,  it  is  not  worth  while  to  despond  over  it.  We 
owe  thirty-two  millions  of  dollars.  Why,  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland  are  not  three  times  as  large  as  Penn- 
sylvania, and  they  owe  four  thousand  millions  of  dol- 
lars. They  pay  it  with  coal  and  iron.  Why  may  not 
we  ?  If  Pennsylvania,  now  that  she  will  soon  cease  to 
require  laborers  on  her  public  works,  were  to  apply 
herself  to  the  resources  of  coal  and  iron,  which  she 
possesses  above  all  her  sister  States,  she  will  have  her 
rail-roads  and  canals  covered  with  these  heavy  burdens, 
increasing  tenfold  the  income  from  her  public  works, 
and  a  fresh  tide  of  prosperity  will  set  into  the  State, 
which  w^ill  enable  her  citizens  to  carry  her  triumphant- 
ly through  all  her  troubles.  That  she  must  and  shall 
be  so  upheld,  we  all  feel,  since  no  reproach  or  degra- 
dation can  come  upon  our  Commonwealth,  without  in- 
volvina:  all  of  us  in  a  common  shame. 


VIII.     Page  216. 

EMGRAVIXG  BY  GALVANIC  ELECTRICITY. 

In  common  copper-plate  engraving,  the  lines  which 
are  to  be  copied  by  the  ink  on  paper  are  cut  into  the 
surface  of  the  metal.  This  circumstance  renders  nec- 
essary a  peculiar  mode  of  printing  off  the  sheets,  much 
slower  and  more  expensive  than  printing  with  raised 


ENGRAVING  BY  GALVANIC   ELECTRICITY.  383 

types,  and  so  unlike  it,  that  the  two  kinds  can  never  be 
combined  in  the  same  impression.  There  are  many 
cases  in  which  such  a  combination  is  iiiglily  desirable, 
especially  in  the  figures  and  drawings  to  illustrate  such 
a  work  as  this.  To  supply  the  place  of  them,  much 
coarser  engravings  on  wood,  or  metallic  castings  from 
such  engravings,  are  used  as  substitutes.  Recently,  a 
method  has  been  discovered  of  producing  raised  lines 
on  the  copper-plate,  by  a  very  ingenious  application  of 
galvanic  electricity. 

The  first  publication  on  this  subject  appears  to  have 
been  in  a  letter  from  Professor  Jacobi,  of  St.  Peters- 
burgh,  to  Mr.  Faraday,  of  London,  dated  in  June,  1839, 
and  published  in  the  London  Philosophical  Magazine, 
for  September  of  that  year.  In  the  course  of  the  same 
month,  (September,)  a  pamphlet  was  published  by  Mr. 
Thomas  Spencer,  of  Liverpool,  in  which  he  states  that 
he  had  made  the  discovery  as  early  as  September,  1837, 
and  had  been  engaged  in  a  series  of  experiments  to 
bring  it  to  a  useful  state  of  improvement.  Whether  or 
not  we  concede  to  Mr.  Spencer  the  right  which  he 
claims,  and  apparently  with  justice,  of  priority  of  dis- 
covery, it  is  evident  that  he  had,  at  the  time  of  publica- 
tion, advanced  much  further  in  producing  useful  practi- 
cal results  than  Professor  Jacobi.  Another  paper  by  Mr. 
Spencer,  giving  some  results  of  his  further  experience, 
is  published  in  the  London  Athenajum,  for  April,  1840. 
We  have  not  seen  Mr.  Spencer's  original  pamphlet ; 
but  an  extended  extract,  containing  apparently  nearly 
the  whole  of  it,  is  contained  in  the  London  Mechanics' 
Magazine,  for  October,  1839.  From  this,  and  from  Mr. 
Spencer's  second  paper,  we  have  prepared  the  follow- 
ing abstract. 

To  render  the  operation  intelligible  to  those  who  are 
not  familiar  with  the  chemical  etfects  of  galvanism,  it  is 
necessary  to  prepiise  a  short  explanation.  All  the  me- 
tallic salts  are  made  up  of  an  oxide  of  the  metal  as  its 
base,  united  with  an  acid.  If  the  acid  is  withdrawn, 
by  a  stronger  affinity,  the  metallic  oxide  is  deposited ; 


384  APPENDIX. 

or,  if  both  the  acid  and  the  oxygen  are  withdrawn,  the 
metal  is  deposited  in  a  pure  state.  The  metalhc  salts, 
as  well  as  the  other  salts,  are  all  capable  of  being  thus 
decomposed  by  galvanic  electricity ;  and  the  metaf  is 
deposited  upon  the  surface  of  the  wire,  or  plate,  which 
forms  the  medium  of  communication  of  the  galvanic 
circuit.  Thus,  if  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  is 
brought  under  galvanic  influence,  all  that  part  of  the 
wire  which  is  immersed  in  the  solution  will  be  coated 
over  with  a  film  of  pure  copper ;  or,  if  a  metallic  plate 
be  soldered  to  the  wire,  and  immersed  in  the  solution, 
the  whole  plate  will  be  thus  coated.  In  this  case,  it 
matters  not  whether  the  conducting  metal  be  the  same 
with  that  of  the  base  of  the  salt  in  solution,  or  not. 

A  very  simple  apparatus  is  sufficient  to  excite  the 
galvanic  action  for  the  purpose  of  engraving.  That 
used  by  Mr.  Spencer  is  a  little  more  complicated.  It 
is  as  follows.  Take  an  oblong  vessel,  or  trough,  of 
convenient  size,  of  earthenware  or  Vv'ood.  Into  this  fit 
a  smaller  vessel,  of  similar  form,  but  so  much  more  shal- 
low, as  to  allow  a  sufficient  space  for  the  copper  plate 
and  tlie  solution  in  which  it  is  placed,  between  the  two 
vessels.  The  bottom  of  the  inner  vessel  must  be  com- 
posed of  some  porous  substance,  suitable  for  the  trans- 
mission of  the  galvanic  action.  Mr.  Spencer  at  first  used 
plaster  of  Paris  ;  but,  in  his  late  communication,  he  re- 
commends brown  paper,  as  rendering  the  deposition  of 
copper  more  rapid  and  more  firm  than  any  thing  else  that 
he  had  tried ;  "  not  the  brown  paper  usually  sold  by 
the  stationers,  but  a  thicker  sort,  manufactured  by  the 
papermakers  to  enclose  their  parcels."  This  paper  he 
fastens  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  by  melted  pitch,  or 
the  common  resinous  cement  used  by  philosophical-in- 
strument makers.  It  will  be  perceived,  that  we  have,  by 
this  arrangement,  a  galvanic  apparatus  with  two  cells, 
differing  from  the  common  apparatus  only  in  providing 
for  a  horizontal  position  of  the  plates  m  the  cells,  and 
at  the  same  time  preserving  their  parallelism ;  the  porous 
bottom  of  the  interior  vessel  operating  as  a  partition  be- 


ENGRAVING  BY  GALVANIC   ELECTRICITV.  3S5 

twcen  the  cells.  In  the  outer  cell  is  placed  the  plate  to 
be  engraved,  immersed  in  a  saturated  solution  of  sul- 
piiate  of  copper ;  and  in  the  inner,  a  plate  of  zinc,  ot 
equal  size,  immersed  in  a  solution  of  common  salt,  or  of 
some  acid.  As  it  is  not  desirable  that  the  action  should 
oe  very  rapid,  Mr,  Spencer  prefers  tlie  salt.  The  com- 
munication is  completed  by  means  of  a  wire,  soldered  on 
tlie  back  of  each  plate,  and  brought  over  the  edge  of  the 
cells.  The  contact  of  the  wires  should  be  made  very 
perfect,  by  brightening  them,  and  confining  them  to- 
gether with  a  binding  screw.  The  plates  are  placed 
iiorizontally,  the  copper  with  the  engraved  surface  up- 
wards, about  five  eighths  or  three  fourths  of  an  inch, 
and  the  zinc  one  eighth  of  an  inch,  distant  from  the 
brown-paper  partition.  For  copying  medals,  and  for 
small  engravings,  a  very  simple  apparatus  may  be  made 
by  taking  a  common  glass  jar  for  an  outer  cell,  and 
suspending  in  it  vertically  a  large  glass  tube,  a  lamp- 
glass,  for  example,  with  a  paper  or  plaster  of  Paris  bot- 
tom for  a  partition.*  Mr.  Spencer  attaches  considera- 
ble importance  to  the  horizontal  position  of  the  plates. 
Mr.  Taylor,  of  London,  in  a  paper  in  the  Philosophical 
Magazine,  for  March,  1840,  recommends  a  vertical  po- 
sition, as  possessing  some  positive  advantages,  besides 
being  much  more  convenient.  Any  vessel  divided  into 
two  parts  by  a  proper  partition  would  then  answer  all 
the  purposes  of  a  sufficient  apparatus.  But  Mr.  Spen- 
cer replies,  that  tlie  vertical  position  has  been  found,  by 
experience,  to  be  a  disadvantage.  The  deposition  of 
metal  at  the  lower  end  will  greatly  exceed  that  at  the 
top,  consequently  rendering  the  plates  very  much  thick- 
er at  one  end  than  the  other ;  which  is  to  be  avoided. 
To  render  this  process  available  for  the  purpose  of 
engraving,  the  following  metiiod  is  pursued.  Take  a 
plate  of  copper,  such  as  is  used  by  an  engraver,  solder 
a  piece  of  copper  wire  to  the  back  part  of  it,  and  then 
give  it  a  coating  of  wax.     Mr.  Spencer,  at  one  time 

*  A  piece  of  bladder  tied  over  th'>  lower  end  of  the  tube  is  said  to 
make  an  excellent  partition. 

33  s.  A. 


386  APPENDIX 

recommended  a  cement  for  this  purpose ;  but  in  hia 
later  paper  he  says  he  finds  that  common  beeswax, 
mehed  by  heating  the  plate,  entirely  prevents  deposi- 
tion on  those  parts  to  which  it  is  applied  ;  while  every 
thing  else  that  he  had  tried  allowed  a  partial  depositioi:^ 
to  take  place.  On  the  coating  of  wax  write  or  draw, 
with  a  pencil  or  point,  the  design  to  be  copied  ;  the 
wax  must  then  be  cut  through,  with  a  steel  point  or 
graver,  taking  special  care  tliat  the  copper  is  thoroughlv 
exposed  in  every  line.  The  shape  of  the  gi-aving  tool 
should  be  such,  that  the  hues  made  are  not  V-shaped, 
but  as  nearly  as  possible  with  pai-allel  sides.  The  plate 
should  next  be  immersed  in  diluted  nitric  acid, — say 
three  parts  water  to  one  part  acid.  It  will  at  once  be 
seen  whether  it  is  strong  enough,  by  the  green  color  of 
the  solution,  and  the  bubbles  of  nitrous  gas  evolved  from 
the  copper.  Let  the  plate  remain  in  it  long  enough  for 
the  exposed  lines  to  become  slightly  corroded,  that  the 
wax,  which  gets  into  the  pores  of  the  copper  during  the 
heating  process,  may  be  tiioroughly  removed.  The  plate 
must  then  be  washed  in  water,  and,  thus  prepared,  is 
placed  in  the  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  in  the  trough 
described  above,  and  a  plate  of  zinc,  of  equal  size,  is 
placed  in  the  other  cell,  and  the  metalhc  communica- 
tion completed  by  means  of  the  wires.  The  apparatus 
is  then  left  for  several  days.  If  it  can  be  kept  at  a  tem- 
perature of  eighty  or  ninety  degrees,  the  process  is  ac- 
celerated. This,  Mr.  Spencer  says,  is  much  better  than 
quickening  it  by  the  addition  of  the  salt  or  acid  used  to 
excite  the  positive  cell. 

As  the  wax  defends  the  plate,  except  in  the  lines 
from  which  it  has  been  removed,  it  is  obvious,  that  the 
precipitated  copper,  instead  of  being  spread  over  the 
v/hole  plate,  as  in  the  former  case,  is  deposited  only  in 
those  lines.  Unless  these  lines  be  perfectly  clean,  the 
deposited  copper  will  not  adhere  with  any  force,  but  is 
easily  detached  when  the  wax  is  removed.  Another 
cause  of  imperfect  adhesion,  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Spen- 
cer, is  the  presence  of  a  minute  portion  of  some  other 


ENGRAVING  BY  GALVANIC   ELECTRICITV.  387 

metal,  such  as  lead,  which,  by  being  precipitated  before 
the  copper,  forms  a  thin  film,  which  prevents  the  adhe- 
sion of  the  subsequently-deposited  copper.  The  sur- 
face of  the  copper  in  the  lines  will  be  found  to  be  more 
or  less  rough,  according  to  the  quickness  of  the  action. 
To  remedy  this,  rub  the  surface  with  a  piece  of  smootli 
flag  or  pumice  stone,  with  water.  Then  heat  the  plate, 
and  wash  otV  tiic  wax-ground  with  spirits  of  turpentine 
and  a  brush.  The  plate  is  now  ready  to  be  printed 
from  at  an  ordinary  press. 

The  length  of  time  necessary  to  complete  the  pro- 
cess must  depend  on  the  degree  of  elevation.  To 
obtain  the  thickness  of  an  eighth  or  tenth  of  an  inch 
will  require  eight  or  ten  days,  at  the  ordinary  tempera- 
ture. For  common  printing,  a  much  less  height  than 
this  will  answer.  Crystals  of  sulphate  of  copper  should 
be  added,  from  time  to  time,  to  the  cupreous  solu- 
tion ;  but,  should  the  deposition  require  to  be  thick,  and 
long  continued,  it  will  be  necessary  to  take  out  the  cu- 
preous solution  once  or  twice,  during  the  operation,  and 
add  an  entirely  fresh  one. 

Another  method  of  obtaining  an  engraved  copper- 
plate, with  raised  lines,  is  to  cut  the  lines  in  a  plate  of 
soft  metal,  as  lead,  or  type-metal,  and  place  this  plate 
in  the  coppery  solution,  in  the  galvanic  circuit.  The 
copper  will  be  deposited  on  the  whole  surface,  filling 
the  lines,  and  thus  producing  corresponding  elevations  in 
its  own  surface.  If  lead  or  type-metal  is  used  for  this 
purpose,  the  copper  is  easily  separated  from  it  when 
the  process  is  completed,  by  applying  the  heat  of  a 
spirit  lamp.  In  other  cases,  a  too  strong  adhesion  may 
be  prevented  by  heating  the  plate,  before  it  is  immersed 
in  the  solution,  and  covering  it  with  wax,  and  then 
wiping  oflf  the  wax  as  cleanly  as  possible.  Enough  will 
remain  to  prevent  a  permanent  chemical  union  of  the 
two  metals,  but  not  enough  to  prevent  the  deposition 
of  the  copper. 

Copper  plates,  engraved  in  the  common  manner,  that 
is,  with  depressed  lines,  may  easily  be  copied  by  the 


388  APPENDIX. 

galvanic  process,  and  the  number  of  copies  multiplied, 
to  any  desirable  extent.  Procure  an  equal  sized  piece 
of  sheet  lead,  (clean  and  briglit,  as  it  comes  from  the 
roller,)  lay  it  on  the  engraved  side  of  the  plate,  and  put 
both  under  a  very  2:)owerful  press ;  when  taken  out, 
the  lead  will  have  every  line  in  relief  that  had  been 
sunk  in  the  copper.  A  wood-engiaving  mav  be  opera- 
ted on  in  the  same  manner.  The  lead  plate  should  be 
encased  in  a  box,  before  being  placed  in  the  galvanic 
apparatus. 

It  will  readily  occur  to  a  man  of  inventive  turn  of 
mind,  that  the  method  of  precipitating  metals,  by 
means  of  galvanic  electricity,  must  be  applicable  to  a 
great  variety  of  purposes  in  the  arts.  The  various  proc- 
esses, of  coating  metallic  surfaces  with  the  finer  met- 
als, as  silvering,  gilding,  &c.,  would  seem  to  be  capable 
of  great  improvement  in  this  way,  although  we  are  not 
aware  that  any  attempts  have  as  yet  been  made  with 
it.  Iron,  in  machinery  where  it  is  particularly  exposed, 
may,  by  the  same  process,  be  covered  with  a  coating 
of  copper,  so  as  to  preserve  it  from  rusting.  But  our 
concern,  at  present,  is  chiefly  with  the  different  modes 
of  copying.  Mr.  Spencer  has  applied  it  to  copying 
medals,  with  entire  success,  having  produced  perfect 
copies  in  copper,  exhibiting  all  the  lines,  and  especially 
the  letters,  of  the  original,  with  great  distinctness  and 
sharpness,  as  if  struck  by  a  die.  We  have  seen  some 
beautiful  copies  of  medals  procured  by  this  process,  by 
Mr.  Dixon,  whose  transfer  process  we  have  already 
mentioned  on  page  228  of  this  Volume. 

There  are  two  methods  of  doing  this.  In  the  first, 
the  medal  to  be  copied  is  placed  in  the  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper,  in  the  galvanic  circuit.  Copper 
is  deposited  upon  its  surface,  forming  a  perfect  facsim- 
ile, reversed,  thus  constituting  a  mould,  in  which,  by  a 
repetition  of  the  process,  an  exact  counterpart  to  the 
original  is  produced.  In  this  operation  means  must  be 
taken  to  prevent  the  adhesion  of  the  precipitated  cop- 
per.    This  may  be  done,  as  has  been  before  intimated, 


ENGRAVING  BY  GALVANIC  ELECTRICITY.  389 

by  a  deposition,  in  the  first  place,  of  a  slight  film  of 
lead,  or  other  metal.  Or  it  may  be  effected,  more 
conveniently,  by  heating  the  medal,  and  rubbing  a 
small  portion  of  wax  over  it.  This  is  then  wiped  off, 
a  sufficient  quantity  always  remaining  to  prevent  adhe- 
sion. 

The  other  method  is  still  more  expeditious.  Two 
pieces  of  clean,  milled,  sheet  lead  arc  taken,  and  the 
medal,  being  placed  between  them,  the  whole  is  sub- 
jected to  pressure  in  a  screw  press,  and  a  complete 
mould  of  both  sides,  is  thus  formed  in  the  lead,  show- 
ing the  most  delicate  lines,  perfect,  (in  reverse.)  Twen- 
ty or*  even  a  hundred  of  these  may  be  so  formed  on  a 
sheet  of  lead,  and  the  copper  deposited  by  the  galvanic 
process,  with  the  greatest  facility.  Those  portions  of 
the  surface  of  the  lead  which  are  between  the  moulds 
may  be  covered  witli  wax,  to  protect  them  from  the 
copper,  or  the  whole  sheet  may  be  covered  with  the 
deposition,  and  the  medals  afterwards  cut  out. 

Neither  of  these  operations  will  form  but  one  side  of 
tbe  medal.  Mr.  Spencer  has  succeeded  in  copying 
entire  medals,  so  as  to  make  a  perfect  facsimile  of  the 
original.  But  the  process  is  more  complicated  and  del- 
icate ;  and  as  he  is  making  improvements  in  it,  he  has 
not  described  it.  Copies  of  the  most  ancient  and  rare 
coins  and  medals  may,  by  these  me^ns,  be  multiplied 
at  will,  so  that  we  may  say  of  this  process,  as  has  been 
said  of  Mr.  Dixon's  method  of  copying  ancient  prints 
and  manuscripts,  that  the  value  from  scarceness  seems 
to  be  almost  annihilated  by  it. 

Mr.  Spencer  has  succeeded,  also,  to  some  extent,  in 
procuring  a  deposition  of  copper  on  moulds  of  clay, 
or  plaster  of  Paris ;  and  it  seems  not  improbable  that 
we  shall  ere  long  be  able  to  copy  the  entire  human 
bust  in  copper,  upon  the  clay  model  of  the  sculptor. 
The  art  is  at  present  in  its  earliest  infancy  ;  and  it  can- 
not be  doubted  that  great  and  important  improvements 
will  be  made  in  it. 

Mr.  Spencer  concludes  his  last  paper,  as  follows: 
33* 


390  APPENDIX. 

*'  1  am  now  occupied  in  some  experiments,  which  may 
terminate  in  still  greater  improvements  in  the  economi- 
cal use  of  this  principle.  While  I  write  I  have  before 
me  a  small,  electro-magnetic,  rotary  machine,  in  rapid 
motion.  In  connexion  with  it,  there  is  a  helix,  or 
coil,  of  covered  copper  wire,  consisting  of  two  lengths, 
each  four  hundred  feet,  the  thicker  one  transmitting  the 
primary  current,  the  smaller  one  the  induced  current. 
In  connexion  with  one  end  of  the  primary  wire,  I  have 
placed  a  copper  plate  to  be  copied.  To  the  opposite 
end  of  the  same  wire  I  have  connected  a  spiral  coil  of 
copper  wire,  which  is  immersed  in  a  porous  cell,  con- 
taining diluted  sulphuric  acid,  with  a  few  drops  of  ni- 
tric acid,  the  plate  to  be  copied  being  immersed  in 
sulphate  of  copper.  The  electric  action,  excited  by 
this  arrangement,  being  sufficient  to  revolve  the  mag- 
netic machine,  ivhile  at  the  same  time  it  is  depositing 
pure  copper  on  tiie  plate  to  be  copied,  in  one  cell,  and 
producing  sulphate  of  copper,  by  the  dissolution  of 
the  copper  wire,  in  the  other.  To  each  end  of  the 
smaller  wire  transmitting  the  induced  current,  I  have 
also  attached  a  similar  arrangement ;  namely,  a  plate 
to  be  copied,  and  a  piece  of  spiral  wire,  in  a  pair  of 
separate  cells.  This  arrangement  is  also  depositing 
copper  on  the  plate  to  be  copied.  My  object  in  this 
was,  to  take  advantage  of  the  increased  amount  of  elec- 
tric action  always  acquired  by  transmitting  the  current 
through  spiral  coils,  and  also  to  avail  myself  of  the  in- 
duced current  which  is  always  eliminated  in  an  opposite 
direction  to  the  primary.  This  latter  current  is  gener- 
ated at  absolutely  no  expenditure  of  material.  For  the 
mere  purpose  of  depositing  copper,  I  might  have  used 
the  helix  without  the  rotary  magnet ;  but  my  object  was 
to  ascertain  the  practicability  of  employing  the  electric- 
ity, generated  by  the  process,  for  other  uses.  From 
this  experiment,  I  can  give  my  opinion,  without  hesita- 
tion, that,  should  electro-magnetic  machines  be  brought 
into  practical  use,  of  which  I  entertain  no  doubt,  the 
same  battery  that  excites  them  into  action,  on  the  one 


ANCIENT  RATE   OF  TRAVELLING.  391 

hand,  will,  on  the  other,  copy  engravings,  ad  infini' 
turn.  For,  after  all  we  have  heard  lately  of  voltaic 
batteries  of  intense  power,  sustaining  ones,  slow  but 
equable,  are  the  only  apparatus  that  can  be  depended 
on  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time.  I  have  not  yet 
made  experiments  with  the  helix,  in  sufficient  number, 
to  justify  me  in  stating,  for  the  present,  the  increase  of 
deposition  that  may  be  derived  from  its  use.  I  intend 
trying  a  number  of  statical  experiments,  with  coils  of 
different  thickness,  and  also  coils  of  flat  copper  rolled 
up  in  the  form  of  a  riband,  covered  with  silk.  The  re- 
sults of  these  may  form  the  subject  of  another  commu- 
nication." 


IX.     Page  240. 

ANCIENT  HATE  OF  TRAVELLING. 

Let  us  here  take  a  slight  retrospective  glance  at  the 
road-communication  of  Britain. 

In  1678,  the  first  coach  was  started  from  Edinburgh 
to  Glasgow,  a  distance  of  forty-four  miles,  which  dis- 
tance was  accomplished,  to  and  from,  in  six  days.*  At 
the  present  period,  four  hours  and  a  half  is  all  the  time 
required  to  travel,  by  coach,  from  one  city  to  the  other. 

In  1706,  the  conveyance  from  London  to  York  was 
by  a  stagecoach,  which  was  advertised  to  perform  "  the 
whole  journey  in  four  days."f  This  is  now  accom- 
plished in  twenty-four  hours. 

*  In  1678,  Mr.  William  Hume,  merchant,  of  Edinburgh,  contracted 
with  the  magistrates  of  Glasgow,  that  he  "  should  have  in  readiness 
a  sufficient  strong  coach,  to  run  between  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  to 
be  drawn  by  six  able  horses,  to  leave  Glasgow  ilk  .Monday  morning, 
and  return  ilk  Saturday  night,  God  willing." 

t  Every  >ronday,  Wednesday,  and  Friday,  (if  God  permit,)  it  sets 
forth,  "  at  five  in  the  morning,  and  returns  from  York  to  Stamford 
in  two  days  ;  and  from  Stamford  by  Huntington  to  London,  in  two 
days  more,  and  the  like  stages  on  their  return." 


392  APPENDIX. 

In  1712,  we  find,  by  an  advertisement*  in  the  New- 
castle Courant,  that  the  stagecoach  conveyed  passen- 
gers between  London  and  Edinburgh,  by  means  of 
"  eighty  able  horses,"  in  thirteen  days  without  any  stop- 
pages. But  according  to  McCulIoch's  Dictionary,  there 
was  only  one  coach  in  the  year  1768,  which  set  out 
once  a  month,  taking  from  ten  to  twelve  days  to  per- 
form the  journey.     Other  routes  were  equally  tedious.f 

'•In  1760,"  says  a  writer  in  Pinnock's  'Guide  to 
Knowledge,'  '•'  when  it  was  necessary  for  a  journey  to 
be  taken  from  Brighton  to  the  metropolis,  (a  distance, 
then,  of  about  sixty  miles.)  the  travellers,  after  break- 
fasting, dining,  and  supping,  on  the  road,  were,  by  great 
exertion,  able  to  get  as  far  as  East-Grinstead,  (about 
thirty  miles.)  where  they  stayed  all  night ;  and  by  per- 
severing, in  the  same  manner,  the  following  day,  were 
enabled  to  reach  London,  at  night,  making  the  extraor- 
dinary journey  of  sixty  miles  in  two  davs.  These  were 
the  '  good  old  times.'  Things  are  now  strangely  alter- 
ed, and  we  are  extravagant  enough  to  perform  the  same 
journey  (now  reduced  to  fifty-two  miles)  in  five  hours, 
and  sometimes  less." — See   Gordon,  on  Locomotion. 

The  first  stagecoach  established  in  America  was  in 
1734,  between  Boston  and  Xew  York.  The  journey 
between  the  two  cities  was  accomplished  in  four  days. 

*  "  Edinburgh,  Berwick,  Newcastle,  Durham,  York,  and  London, 
stagecoach  begins  on  Monday,  the  thirteenth  of  October,  1712. 
All  that  desire  to  pass  from  Edinburgh  to  London,  or  from  London 
to  Edinburgh,  or  any  place  on  that  road,  let  them  repair  to  Mr.  John 
Baillie's,  at  the  Coach  and  Horses,  at  the  Head  of  Canongate,  Edin- 
burgh, every  other  Saturday,  or  to  the  Black  Swan,  in  Holborn, 
London,  every  other  Monday  ;  at  both  which  places,  they  may  be 
received  into  a  stagecoach,  which  performs  the  whole  journey  in 
thirteen  davs,  without  any  stoppages,  (if  God  permit,)  having  eightv 
able  horses  to  perform  the  whole  stage.  Each  passenger  paying  four 
pounds  ten  shillings  for  the  whole  journey,  allowing  each  passenger 
twenty  pounds  weight,  and  all  above  to  pay  six  pence  a  pound.  The 
coach  sets  out  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning.  Performed  by  Hen. 
Harrison,  Robert  Yorke,  Richd.  Speight,  Richard  Croft." 

t  "  A  new,  fast  coach,  hung  on  steel  springs,  with  four  horses  and 
two  postillions,  sets  out  from  the  Greyhound  Inn,  Market-place,  Bath, 
and  the  George  Inn,  Drury  Lane,  London,  every  ^Ionday,Wedne8da?. 


INFLUENCE  OF  IMPROVEMENTS,  ETC.      393 

X.    Page  241. 

INFLUENCE  OF    IMPROVEMENTS  ON  HUMAN  WELFARE. 

"  It  is  a  favorite  phrase,"  says  an  eloquent  country- 
man of  ours,  "  of  those  wlio  boast  of  what  is  called  the 
'  march  of  intellect,'  that  things  are  tlms  changed,  [he 
refers  to  the  growing  distaste  for  war,]  because  the 
'  schoolmaster  is  abroad.'  But  I  tell  you  that  some- 
thing far  more  cflective  than  the  schoolmaster, — a 
mightier  than  Solomon, — is  abroad.  It  is  the  steam- 
engine,  in  its  twofold  capacity  of  a  means  of  production 
and  the  means  of  transport ;  the  most  powerful  instru- 
ment, by  far,  of  pacification  and  commerce,  and  there- 
fore of  improvement  and  happiness,  that  the  world  has 
ever  seen  :  which,  while  it  increases  capital,  and  multi- 
plies, beyond  all  imagination,  the  products  of  industry, 
brings  the  most  distant  people  into  contact  with  one 
another ;  breaks  down  the  barriers  which  exclusive  leg- 
islation would  oppose  to  the  freedom  of  mercantile  ex- 
changes ;  effaces  all  peculiarities  of  national  character ; 
and  promises,  at  no  distant  period,  to  make  the  whole 
Christian  world,  at  least,  one  great  family." 

And  again,  speaking  of  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  he 
says,  and  says  truly,  "  Whoever  shall  write  the  politi- 
cal history  of  that  invaluable  plant,  will  h'ave  a  more 
important  work  to  perform  than  has  ever  fallen  to  the 
lot  of  a  biographer  of  statesmen  or  philosophers.  I 
will  venture  to  say,  without  going  more  into  details, 
that  the  single  circumstance  of  bringing  the  wonderful- 
ly cheap  fabrics  produced  by  modern  machinery  within 
the  reach  of  even  the  humblest  of  the  laboring  classes, 
of  substituting  decent  and  comfortable  raiment  for  the 
few  scanty  and  filthy  rags,  the  squalid  exterior,  which 
makes  poverty  not  only  more  painful,  but  at  once  more 

and  Friday,  at  seven  o'clock  in  tiie  morning,  and  arrives  at  the  above 
inns  on  the  following  days,  at  four  in  the  evening.  The  coach  stops 
all  night  at  Andover,  going  and  coming." — Aleicspaper,  1765. 


394  APPENDIX. 

humiliating  and  degrading,  to  its  victim,  and  more  dis- 
gustful to  others,  than  it  ought  to  be,  will  signally  con- 
tribute to  elevate  the  condition  of  the  poor  in  the  social 
scale ;  to  raise  their  self-esteem,  and  to  increase  the 
sympathy  of  oliiers  for  them  ;  in  a  word,  to  make  them 
feel  themselves  men,  entitled  to  a  place  among  men  ;  not 
pariahs  and  outcasts,  whose  contact  is  contamination. 
A  people  well  clad  and  well  housed  will  be  sure  to  pro- 
vide themselves  witii  all  the  other  comfo/ts  of  life  ;  and 
it  is  the  diffusion  of  these  comforts,  and  the  growing  taste 
for  them,  among  all  classes  ;  it  is  the  desire  of  riches,  as 
it  is  commonly  called  ;  that  is  gradually  putting  an  end 
to  the  destructive  and  bloody  game  of  war,  and  reserving 
all  the  resources  hitherto  wasted  by  it,  for  enterprises 
of  industry  and  commerce,  prosecuted  with  the  fiery 
spirit  which  once  vented  itself  in  scenes  of  peril  and 
carnage." 

"And  how  is  the  face  of  Europe  changing  by  means 
of  such  enterprises  ?  I  have  travelled  in  parts  of  the 
Continent  which  the  spirit  of  gain,  with  its  usual  con- 
comitants, industry  and  improvement,  has  invaded  since 
the  peace,  at  an  interval  of  fifteen  years ;  and  been 
struck  with  tiie  revolution  that  is  going  on.  There  is 
a  singularly  beautiful,  though  rather  barren,  tract  of 
country,  between  Liege  and  Spa,  where,  in  1819,  my 
attention  had  been  principally  attracted  by  the  striking 
features  of* a  mountainous  region,  with  here  and  there 
a  ruin  of  the  feudal  past,  and  here  and  there  the  hovel 
of  some  poor  hind, — the  very  haunt  of  the  '  wild-boar 
of  the  Ardennes'  in  tlie  good  old  times  of  the  House 
of  Burgundy.  I  returned  to  it,  in  1835,  and  saw  it 
covered  with  mills  and  factories,  begrimmed  with  the 
smoke  and  soot  of  steam-engines ;  its  romantic  beauty 
deformed,  its  silvan  solitudes  disturbed  and  desecrated 
by  the  sounds  of  active  industry  and  the  busy  hum  of 
men.  I  asked,  what  had  brought  about  so  great  a 
change,  and  found  the  author  of  it, — a  man  having  a 
more  numerous  band  of  retainers  and  dependents  than 
any  baron  bold  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  in  every 


ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  PHILOSOPHY  COMPARED.  395 

respect  more  important  than  many  of  the  sovereign 
princes  on  the  other  side  of  the  Rhine, — was  an  Eng- 
lish manufacturer,  who  had  estabHshed  himself  there 
some  twenty  years  ago,  without  much  capital,  and  had 
effected  all  this  by  his  industry  and  enterprise." — 
Speech  of  H.  S.  Legare,  in  Congress,  1837. 


XI.     Page  251. 

ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  THILOSOPHY  COMPARED. 

The  end  wiiich  the  great  Lord  Bacon  proposed  to 
himself  was  the  multiplying  of  human  enjoyments  and 
the  mitigating  of  human  sufferings.  The  ancient  phi- 
losophy disdained  to  be  useful,  and  was  content  to  be 
stationary.  It  dealt  largely  in  theories  of  moral  per- 
fection, which  were  so  sublime,  that  they  never  could 
be  more  than  theories ;  in  attempts  to  solve  insoluble 
enigmas,  in  exhortations  to  the  attainment  of  unattain- 
able frames  of  mind.  It  could  not  condescend  to  the 
humble  office  of  ministering  to  the  comfort  of  human 
beings.  All  the  schools  regarded  that  office  as  degrad- 
ing, some  censured  it  as  immoral.  Once,  indeed,  Po- 
sidonius,  a  distinguished  writer  of  the  age  of  Cicero  and 
Ccesar,  so  far  forgot  himself,  as  to  enumerate  among  the 
humbler  blessings  which  mankind  owed  to  philosophy, 
the  discovery  of  the  principle  of  the  arch,  and  the  in- 
troduction of  the  use  of  metals.  This  eulogy  was  con- 
sidered as  an  affront,  and  was  taken  up  witli  proper 
spirit.  Seneca  vehemently  disclaims  tiiese  insulting 
compliments.  Piiilosopiiy,  according  to  him,  has  noth- 
ing to  do  with  teaching  men  to  rear  arched  roofs  over 
their  iieads.*  "  The  true  philosopher  does  not  care 
whether  he  has  an  arched  roof,  or  any  roof.  Philoso- 
phy has  nothing  to  do  with  teacliiiig  men  the  uses  of 
metals.     She  teaciies  us  to  be  independent  of  all  ma- 

*  Seneca,  Epistle  90. 


39G  APPENDIX. 

terial  substances,  of  all  mechanical  contrivances."  He 
labors  to  clear  Democritus  from  the  disgraceful  imputa- 
tion of  having  made  the  first  arch,  and  Anacharsis  from 
the  charge  of  havij|g  contrived  the  potters'  wheel.  The 
business  of  these  philosophers  was  to  declaim  in  praise 
of  poverty,  with  two  millions  sterling  out  at  usury  ;  to 
meditate  epigrammatic  conceits  about  the  evils  of  luxu- 
ry, in  gardens  which  moved  the  envy  of  sovereigns  ;  to 
rant  about  liberty,  while  fawning  on  the  insolent  and 
pampered  freedman  of  a  tyrant ;  to  celebrate  the  divine 
beauty  of  virtue  with  the  same  pen  wiiich  had  just 
before  written  a  defence  ot  the  murder  of  a  mother  by 
a  son.  From  the  cant  of  this  philosophy,  a  philosophy 
meanly  proud  of  its  own  unprofitableness,  it  is  delight- 
ful to  turn  to  the  lessons  of  the  great  English  teacher. 
The  philosophy  which  he  taught  was  essentially  new. 
Its  object  was  the  good  of  mankind,  in  the  sense  in 
which  the  mass  of  mankind  always  have  understood, 
and  always  will  understand,  the  word  good.  The  aim 
of  the  Platonic  philosophy  was  to  exalt  man  into  a  god. 
Tlie  aim  of  the  Baconian  philosophy  was  to  provide  man 
with  what  he  requires,  while  he  continues  to  be  a  man. 
T!ie  aim  of  the  Platonic  philosophy  was  to  raise  us  far 
above  vulgar  wants.  The  aim  of  the  Baconian  piiilos- 
ophy  was  to  supply  our  vulgar  wants.  The  former 
aim  was  noble  ;  but  the  latter  was  attainable.  Ask  the 
follower  of  Bacon,  what  the  new*  philosophy,  as  it  was 
called  in  the  time  of  Charles  the  Second,  has  effected 
for  mankind,  and  his  answer  is  ready.  It  has  length- 
ened life  ;  it  has  mitigated  pain  ;  it  has  extinguished 
diseases  ;  it  has  increased  the  fertility  of  the  soil ;  it  has 
given  new  securities  to  the  mariner ;  it  has  furnished 
new  arms  to  the  warrior ;  it  has  spanned  great  rivers 
and  estuaries  with  bridges,  of  form  unknown  to  our 
fathers  ;  it  has  guided  the  thunderbolt  innocuously  from 
heaven  to  earth ;  it  has  lighted  up  tlie  night  with  the 
splendor  of  the  day ;  it  has  extended  the  range  of  the 
human  vision  ;  it  has  multiplied  the  power  of  the  human 
muscles  ;  it  has  accelerated  motion  ;  it  has  annihilated 


TECHNOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  397 

distance  ;  it  has  facilitated  intercourse,  correspondence, 
all  friendly  offices,  all  despatch  of  business  ;  it  has  ena- 
bled man  to  descend  to  the  depths  of*the  sea ;  to  soar 
into  the  air,  to  penetrate  securely  into  the  noxious  re- 
cesses of  the  earth,  to  traverse  the  land  on  cars  which 
whirl  along  without  horses,  and  the  ocean  in  ships 
which  sail  against^he  wind.  These  are  but  a  part  of 
its  fruits,  and  of  its  first  fruit.  For  it  is  a  philosophy 
which  never  rests,  which  has  never  attained,  which  is 
never  perfect.  Its  law  is  progress.  A  point,  which  was 
yesterday  invisible,  is  its  goal  to-day,  and  will  be  its 
starting-post  to-morrow. — Edinburgh  Review. 


XII.     Page  292. 

TECHNOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION. 

Among  the  most  effectual  means  of  developing  man- 
ufacturing skill  and  enterprise  in  a  country  are,  legisla- 
tive protection,  associations  for  the  encouragement  of 
the  arts,  public  exhibitions  and  repositories,  and  tech- 
nological instruction.  It  was  our  intention  to  have 
entered  into  some  details,  with  respect  to  each  of  these, 
but  our  limits  forbid.  Omitting,  therefore,  any  further 
reference  to  the  first  three,  which  are  beginning  to  be 
appreciated  among  us,  we  pass  to  theybr<r/A,  which  has 
hitherto  received  scarcely  any  attention  in  the  United 
States,  but  is  perhaps  superior  in  importance,  at  this 
time,  to  either  of  the  others. 

By  technological  instruction,  wc  mean  the  systematic 
instruction  of  the  young  in  the  theorxj  and  economy 
of  the  useful  arts.  To  some  extent,  this  instruction 
ought  to  be  made  general,  and  should  therefore  be 
introduced  into  our  elementary  schools  and  colleges. 
What  is  more  particularly  wanted,  however,  is  special 
instruction  for  tiiose  who  are  intended  for  industrious 
pursuits.  Of  these,  there  are,  of  course,  two  classes  • 
34  s.  A. 


398  APPENDIX. 

one,  having  some  capital  and  the  means  of  taking  a 
thorough  course  of  instruction,  and  who  contemplate 
becoming  proprietors  or  superintendents  of  manufac- 
tories, or  engineers  ;  the  other  contemplate  beginning 
as  operatives,  and  advancing,  by  degrees,  to  a  higher 
station.  For  both  of  these,  a  more  thorough  preparato- 
ry training  is  necessary,  as  it  respects  the  science  of  their 
business. 

It  is  necessary,  on  the  simple  principle  that  knowl- 
edge is  power.  Under  the  strong  stimulus  of  circum- 
stances, our  people  contrive  to  acquire  vast  dexterity  in 
whatever  they  undertake.  It  is  none  the  less  certain, 
however,  that  with  more  thorough  and  systematic  train- 
ing, this  dexterity  might  be  increased  and  made  more 
general,  at  the  same  time  that  it  would  be  applied  with 
more  steadiness  and  forecast.  Our  enterprise  is  now 
somewhat  too  impulsive.  Undertakings  of  great  prom- 
ise, and  involving  great  expense,  terminate  disastrously, 
because  not  commenced  with  sufficient  deliberation ;  or 
because  intrusted,  for  their  execution,  to  incompetent 
agents  and  operatives.  The  effect  of  a  well-digested  sys- 
tem of  technological  instruction,  if  it  become  extensive, 
would  be  to  provide  a  ready  stock  of  ability  and  skill, 
which  might  at  any  time  be  made  available  for  such 
undertakings.  More  capital,  too,  would  be  invested  in 
the  arts  and  in  manufactures,  if  the  capitalists  could 
find  agents,  and  had  more  confidence  in  their  ability. 

Another  effect  of  such  instruction  would  be,  to  elevate 
the  character  and  sentiments  of  the  pupils,  and  thus  in- 
spire them  with  the  desire  of  excelling  in  their  respec- 
tive pursuits. 

A  young  country,  like  ours,  especially  if  its  industry 
is  not  protected  by  the  government,  can  build  up  its 
own  arts  only  by  superior  native  skill.  It  must  have 
artisans,  superintendents,  die,  of  its  own,  seeking  em- 
ployment, who  are  able  to  fabricate  the  best  articles  at 
the  cheapest  rate.  This  is  pecuHarly  necessary  among 
us,  at  this  time.  In  respect  to  geographical  position, 
facilities  for  obtaining  the  raw  materials,  freedom  from 


TECHNOLOGICAL  INSTRUCTION.  399 

taxation,  and  general  activity  and  intelligence  among 
the  people,  we  are  more  advantageously  situated  for 
manufacturing  than  the  countries  of  Europe.  But  they 
have  more  capital,  more  science,  and  cheaper  labor ; 
and  they  are  now  busily  engaged  in  acquiring  more 
skill.  This  may  be  regarded  as  the  distinguishing 
feature  of  European  industry,  especially  of  continental 
industry,  at  this  time.  Tired  of  dependence  on  Eng- 
land for  all  the  articles  needed  in  home  consumption, 
France  and  Germany  are  now  laboring  to  dcvelope  their 
own  arts,  through  the  medium  of  education.  Though 
they  have  judiciously  regulated  their  tariff'  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  Prussia,  in  order  to  insure  success,  has  aban- 
doned her  policy  of  free  trade,  as  it  respects  England, 
and  resorted  to  an  admirable  system  of  protecting  du- 
ties, yet  they  seem  to  rely  greatly  on  the  superior  skill 
which  they  are  aiming  to  develope  by  instruction. 

For  this  purpose,  professorships  of  technology  have 
been  established  in  the  universities,  in  connexion  with 
repositories  or  museums  for  instruments,  products,  ma- 
terials, Slc.  ;  and  text-books,  and  other  instruction  con- 
nected with  the  arts,  have  been  introduced  into  the 
gymnasia  and  inferior  schools. 

In  addition  to  these,  institutions  specially  devoted 
to  the  training  of  those  intended  for  industrious  pur- 
suits are  rising  in  all  parts  of  Germany,  Austria,  and 
France.  Some  of  them,  like  the  school  of  arts  and 
manufactures  at  Paris,  the  institute  of  arts  at  Berlin, 
and  the  polytechnic  institute  at  Vienna,  teach  the  ele- 
mentary learning  of  all  the  arts,  in  connexion  with  other 
branches,  useful  for  those  who  are  not  intended  for 
the  learned  professions.  The  following  branches  are 
usually  taught,  in  addition  to  the  languages,  which  may 
be  omitted :  namely,  chemistry  and  its  applications, 
physics  and  their  applications,  elementary  and  higher 
mathematics  and  their  applications,  mechanics  and 
their  applications,  civil  and  hydraulic  architecture, 
draioing,  modelling,  SfC.  These  institutions  are  de- 
signed, of  course,  for  those  intended  for  engineers,  su- 


400  APPENDIX. 

perintendents,  &c.  They  are  supported,  for  the  most 
part,  by  government. 

There  are  also  agricultural,  or  rural,  schools,  in  Switz- 
erland, Ireland,  &-c.,  which  are  usually  designed  for  the 
poor,  who  will  devote  themselves  to  agriculture.  The 
instruction  is  confined  to  the  inferior  branches,  and  is 
connected  with  manual  labor  in  the  field.  The  cele- 
brated institution  of  Fellcnberg,  at  HofTwyl,  is  of  a  high- 
er character. 

Special  schools  of  arts,  mines,  and  manufactures,  are 
also  established,  which  give  ample  courses  of  instruction 
in  elementary  learning,  with  i  particular  reference,  how- 
ever, to  some  one  art  or  class  of  arts.  Of  this  nature, 
is  the  polytechnic  school  of  Paris,  which  educates  those 
who  are  intended  for  military  service,  civil  engineering, 
&,c. ;  the  school  of  roads,  bridges,  and  mines,  in  France, 
the  school  of  mines,  in  Saxony,  the  industrial  school  of 
Lyons,  in  France,  connected  more  especially  with  the 
silk  manufacture,  &c.  &c.  &-c. 

Theoretical  instruction  is  combined,  more  or  less,  in 
these  schools,  with  practice.  The  student  goes  through 
the  manipulations  in  chemistry,  modelling,  drawing, 
&c.,  and  also  (in  Germany,  not  in  France)  in  the  par- 
ticular art  of  trade  for  which  he  is  destined.  Much 
difficulty  has  been  experienced,  however,  in  conducting 
the  latter  branch  of  instruction.  Experience,  in  Ger- 
many, seems  to  have  taught,  tiiat,  in  the  case  of  some 
arts,  (such  as  masonry,  carpentry,  joinery,  &c.,)  the 
manual  and  theoretical  parts  cannot  be  combined,  and 
hence  young  men,  intended  for  these,  are,  in  some 
schools,  required  to  have  served  an  apprenticeship  at 
their  trade  before  entering.  In  other  arts,  (such  as  dye- 
ing, glass-cutting,  carving,  engraving,  machine-making, 
&,c.  &.C.)  a  certain  portion  of  time  is  given  to  practice, 
either  in  workshops  belonging  to  the  establishments,  in 
large  manufactories  in  the  vicinity,  or  in  smaller  shops, 
occupied  by  mechanics,  in  the  town,  who,  in  consid- 
eration of  being  allowed  to  attend  lectures,  &c.,  will 
teach  the  pupils  for  a  few  hours,  weekly,  the  use  of 


NOTE  ON  Tlin  COTTON  MANUFACTURE.      401 

tools,  the  operations,  c^c.  Of  these  three  methods, 
tlie  last  is  probably  the  best,  as  involving  less  expense, 
and  yielding  more  real  instruction,  than  tiie  first,  and 
securing  a  greater  variety  of  practice  and  instruction, 
than  the  second. 

The  only  institution  of  this  kind,  known  to  us,  in  the 
United  States,  is  the  Rensselaer  Institute  at  Troy,  New 
York,  founded,  and  for  many  years  sustained,  by  the 
late  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer,  of  Albany. 


NOTE  ON  THE  COTTON  MANUFACTURE. 

Since  the  preceding  pages  were  in  type,  we  have 
received  a  highly  interesting  work  by  Mr.  James  Mont- 
gomery, superintendent  of  the  York  Factories,  in  Saco, 
Maine,  and  published  in  Glasgow,  Scotland,  on  the 
Cotton  Manufacture  of  tiie  United  States,  contrasted 
and  compared  with  that  of  Great  Britain.  We  have 
not  room,  in  the  short  space  allowed  for  this  Note,  for 
even  a  summary  of  the  very  important  facts  presented 
in  this  volume.  We  might  otherwise  have  drawn  from 
it  many  striking  illustrations  of  the  principle  which  it 
has  been  our  object  to  enforce, — the  connexion  of  sci- 
ence and  intelligence  with  improvement  in  the  arts, — 
especially  in  reference  to  the  condition  of  the  manu- 
factures in  this  Country,  and  the  prospects  which  await 
them  on  the  expiration  of  legislative  protection.  The 
comparative  expense  of  manufacturing  cotton  in  this 
Country  and  Great  Britain  is  exhibited  in  detail,  with  a 
description  of  the  machinery  and  processes  that  are 
peculiar  to  cither  country,  and  their  cost  in  each.  From 
this  comparison,  it  appears  that  notiiing  but  a  high  de- 
gree of  skill  can  hereafter  enable  our  manufacturers  to 
compete,  successfully,  with  their  more  experienced  rivals 
abroad.  The  cost  of  buildings  and  machinery,  and 
the  expense  of  working  the  cotton,  is  considerably  less 
there  than  here.  Tliis,  however,  is  somewhat  more 
34* 


402  APPENDIX. 

than  counterbalanced  by  the  diminished  cost  of  the 
raw  material  to  the  American  manufacturer.  But  it 
may  well  be  doubted,  whether  this  difference  will  be 
sufficient  to  protect  any  manufactories,  but  such  as  are 
managed  with  that  high  degree  of  skill  which  adequate 
knowledge  alone  can  impart.  The  immense  amount 
of  the  interests  involved  renders  this  a  question  of  vast 
consequence  to  our  whole  community,  and  the  accu- 
mulation of  facts  here  presented  has  a  very  important 
bearing  upon  it.  It  were  foreign  to  our  purpose,  even 
if  we  had  room,  to  speak  of  the  value  of  the  details  in 
this  volume,  to  the  manufacturer  himself,  in  conducting 
his  operations,  although  we  conceive  it  must  be  of  great 
advantage  to  him,  by  enabling  him  to  compare  his  own 
processes  and  their  results,  with  those  of  others,  both 
in  our  own  Country  and  Great  Britain. 

Mr.  Montgomery  says,  that  the  preliminary  processes 
of  assorting  and  preparing  the  cotton,  and  the  picking 
and  spinning,  are  better  done, — that  is,  with  more  care, 
and  with  better  machinery,  and  therefore  more  perfect- 
ly,— in  Great  Britain,  than  in  America ;  but  that  the 
weaving  is  quite  as  *vell  done  here,  as  there.  If  this 
observation  is  well  founded,  there  must  be  ample  scope 
among  us  for  the  exercise  of  ingenuity  and  skill,  until 
the  improvement  in  one  department  shall  be  at  least 
equal  to  that  in  the  other  ;  and  until  a  reduction  shall 
be  effected  of  the  cost  of  manufacturing,  which  is  now 
nineteen  per  cent,  greater  here  than  it  is  in  Great 
Britain. 


GLOSSARY 


O?  WORDS  AND  PHRASES  NOT  EASILY  TO  BE  UNDERSTOOD 
RY  THE  YOUNG  READER. 

[?>Iany  names  o*'  persons  and  places,  terms  of  art,  &c.,  wliich  oc- 
ur  in  this  \'olun>e,  will  be  found  explained  in  one  of  tlie  passages 
A'here  they  occur.     For  these,  see  I.ndex.J 

I'jusion,  abuse,  impropriety. 

Ad  infinUujn,  to  infinity. 

^dza,  or  .iddicc,  a  tool  of  the  axe  kind,  used  by  coopers  and  carpenters 
for  cutting  thin  chips  from  timber,  having  its  blade  thin  and  arch- 
ing, and  its  edge  at  right  angles  with  the  handle. 

.Icriform.  having  the  form  or  nature  of  air. 

.iffincoiirt,  a  village  in  France,  celebrated  for  a  battle,  fougiit  October 
"20,  1415,  between  the  French  and  English,  in  which  the  latter, 
commanded  by  King  Henry  V.,  were  victorious,  though  tlie  French 
army  was  seven  times  more  numerous  than  the  English,  and  the 
latter,  destitute  of  almost  every  thing,  and  reduced  by  sickness,  had, 
before  the  battle,  requested  peace  on  disadvantageous  terms.  The 
French  lost  twenty-four  tliousand  men,  the  English  sixteen  hundred. 

Albumen,  a  substance  found  in  living  bodies,  which  coagulates,  or 
becomes  hard,  by  heat.    White  of  egg  is  an  example. 

Alchijmists,  the  professors  of  AUhymij,  an  art  which  originated  in 
Arabia,  in  the  fourth  century,  and  was  afterwards  much  cultivated 
in  Europe.  It  had  for  its  object  the  transmutation  or  ciiange  of 
otlicr  metals  into  gold,  and  tlie  power  of  curing  all  disea.ses,  and 
renewing  and  prolonging  life.  This  was  to  be  effected,  as  they 
supposed,  by  a  substance  of  which  they  were  in  search,  and  which 
they  called  the  dizir  of  life,  or,  the  philosopher's  stone.  Though  en- 
gaged in  wliat  is  now  known  to  have  been  a  visionary  object,  they 
rendered  great  service  to  science,  and  particularly  to  chemistry ; 
many  really  valuable  discoveries  having  been  made  by  them,  while 
in  the  fruitless  pursuit  of  the  imaginary  '  philosopher's  stone.' 

Alcuin,  (Flaccus  Alcuinus,  or  Albinus,)  an  English  scholar,  the  most 
learned  and  polished  man  of  his  time.  He  was  born  A.  D.  732,  and 
died  A.  D.  604.  He  was  Abbot  of  Canterbury,  but  in  782,  on  the 
invitation  of  Charlemagne,  (or  Charles  the  Great.)  he  went  to 
France,  where  he  became  the  instructer  and  confidential  adviser 
of  that  monarch,  and  continued  to  be  so  till  A.  D.  801.  He  est  .b- 
lished  various  schools,  and  labored  to  diffuse  through  Europe  a 
knowledge  of  the  sciences.  He  left  numerous  works  in  theology 
and  philosophy,  which  were  published  in  1G17,  and  again,  in  a  more 
complete  edition,  in  1777.  The  Academics  of  Tours,  Paris,  and 
many  others,  were  cither  founded, enlarged,  enriched,  or  instructed, 
by  him,  or  through  his  influence  with  Charlemagne. 

Slkali.  (plural  alkalies,)  a  substance  that  has  the  properly  of  com- 
bining with,  and  neutralizing  the  properties  of,  acids,  producing  salts 
by  the  combination.     Alkalies  change  most  of  the  vegetable  blues 


404  GLOSSARY. 

and  purples  to  green,  red  to  purple,  and  yellow  to  brown.  Caustic 
alkali,  an  alkali  deprived  of  all  impurities,  being  thereby  rendered 
more  caustic  and  violent  in  its  operation.  This  term  is  usually 
applied  to  pure  potash.  Fixed  alkali,  an  alkali  that  emits  no  char- 
acteristic smell,  and  cannot  be  volatilized  or  evaporated  without 
great  difficulty.  Potash  and  soda  are  called  the  fixed  alkalies. 
Soda  is  also  called  a  fossil,  or  mineral  alkali,  and  potash,  the 
zegetalle  alkali.  Volatile  alkali,  an  elastic,  transparent,  colorless, 
and  consequently  invisible  gas,  known  by  the  name  of  ammonia, 
or  ammonical  gas. 

Ammonia,  see  the  preceding  article. 

.inacharsis,  a  Scythian  philosopher,  who  flourished  about  B.  C.  5S2 
He  was  brother  to  the  King,  Saulus,  and  went  to  Athens,  on  an  em 
bassy,  in  the  time  of  Solon,  by  whom  he  was  much  esteemed.  He 
was  admitted  by  the  Athenians  to  the  honor  of  citizenship,  being 
the  only  stranger  upon  whom  that  honor  was  ever  conferred.  On 
his  return  to  Scythia,  he  attempted  to  change  the  customs  of  his 
country,  and  introduce  the  civilization  and  worship  of  Greece ;  but 
he  was  slain  by  the  king,  before  he  was  enabled  to  put  his  desion 
in  execution.  He  was  esteemed  one  of  the  seven  wise  men  of 
Greece. 

Anderson,  (James,  LL.D.,)  a  celebrated  Scotch  agriculturist  and 
author,  who  was  born  near  Edinburgh,  A.  D.  1739,  and  died  Oct.  15, 
180S.  At  an  early  age,  perceiving  the  importance  of  a  scientitic 
acquaintance  with  agriculture,  he  entered  upon  the  study  of  chem- 
istry, and  pursued,  at  the  same  time,  several  other  branches  of 
useful  knowledge.  He  published  many  valuable  works  on  agri 
culture  and  other  subjects,  among  which,  was  a  '  Correspondence 
with  General  Washington.'  '' 

Anglo-Saxon,  an  appellation  given  to  the  language  spoken  by  the 
English  Saxons,  or  inhabitants  of  England  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
fifth  century,  (A.  D.  450,  and  after.)  The  name  England  is  derived 
from  the  Angles,  a  tribe  who  settled  there  about  A.  D.  440.  They 
formerly  inhabited  ancient  Germany,  as  did  also  the  Saxons,  who 
came  over  to  England  about  the  same  time. 

Anthracite,  one  of  the  most  valuable  kinds  of  mineral  coal.  It  is  very 
abundant  in  the  United  States. 

Appert's  process,  a  method  of  preserving  articles  of  food  from  decay, 
brought  into  notice  by  M.  Appert,  in  a  work  published  by  order  of 
the  French  Minister  of  the  Interior,  and  entitled,  '  The  Art  of  pre- 
serving all  Kinds  of  Animal  and  Vegetable  Substances  for  several 
Years.' 

Aral,  or  araie,  array,  pomp,  splendor,  show. 

Archil,  (or  archilla,  called  also  rocella,  and  orsielle,)  a  whitish  moss, 
which  urows  upon  rocks  in  the  Canary  and  Cape  de  Verde  Islands, 
and  yields  an  extremely  beautiful  and  rich  purple  tincture.  When 
prepared  for  dyeing,  it  is  called  litmus,  or  lacmus. 

Archimedes,  the  most  celebrated  among  the  ancient  geometricians, 
born  at  Syracuse,  in  Sicily,  about  two  hundred  and  eighty-seven 
years  before  the  birth  of  our  Saviour.  He  was  the  inventor  of  sev- 
eral of  the  most  important  mechanical  powers,  such  as  the  com- 
pound pullev,  the  endless  screw,  &c. ;  and  is  reported  to  have  said, 
he  would  move  the  world,  if  he  could  find  a  fulcrum,  or  point, 
without  it,  on  which  he  could  stand  and  place  his  lever.  He  is  also 
said  to  have  constructed  lenses  or  burning  glasses,  of  such  great 


GLOSSARY.  405 

power,  that  he  set  on  fire  with  them  the  shif«  of  the  Roman  fleet, 
which  was  besieging  Syracuse.  Hioro,  King  of  Syracuse,  suspect- 
ing that  ati  artist  had  added  some  coiuinon  metal  to  a  crown,  which 
ho  had  directed  to  be  made  of  ])ure  gold,  requested  Archimedes  to 
ascertain  the  fact.  lie  discovered  the  method  of  solving  the  ques 
tioii,  while  he  was  in  the  bath,  as  mentioned  in  this  volume,  page  C7 

Aristotle,  a  distinguished  Grecian  philosopher,  born  three  hundred 
and  eighty-four  years  before  Christ,  at  Stagira,  in  Macedonia; 
whence  lie  is  sometimes  called  'the  Stagirite.' 

Jlrkwright,  (Sir  Richard,)  inventor  of  the  spinning-jenny,  wlio  was 
born  Dec.  ii3,  17;?"2,  and  died  in  ]7!)*2.  For  a  further  account  of 
him,  see  the  second  volume  of  '  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Diffi- 
culties,' forming  Vol.  xv.  of  'The  School  LiBaARV,'  Larger 
Series. 

Artesian  iccll,  a  cylindrical  perforation,  bored  vertically  into  the  earth, 
through  one  pr  more  of  the  geological  strata,  till  it  passes  into  a 
porous  gravelly  bed,  containing  water  under  sufficient  incumbent 
pressure  to  force  it  to  the  surface,  or  to  a  height  convenient  for  the 
operation  of  a  pump.  For  a  full  notice  of  such  wells,  see  Bigelow's 
'  Useful  Arts,'  Vol.  ii.,  forming  the  twelfth  volume  of  the  Larger 
Series  of  '  The  School  Library.' 

The  .Athenian  hero,  (on  page  247,)  see  Themistoclcs . 

Augustine,  or  Austin,  St.,  see  St.  Augustine. 

Automatic,  mechanical,  not  voluntary,  not  depending  on  the  will. 

Azote,  see  JVitrogen. 

Babbage,  (Charles,)  a  distinguished  English  writer  and  mathematician, 
Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  author 
of  the  '  Economy  of  Machinery  and  Manufactures,'  and  other  val- 
uable works. 

Bacon,  (Francis,  Lord  Verulam,)  Lord  High  Chancellor  of  England, 
was  born  A.  D.  ir)Gl,  and  died  A.  D.  IG26.  He  was  a  profound 
scholar  in  the  whole  circle  of  the  sciences,  and  is  to  be  regarded  as 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  of  any  age.  He  advocated,  with 
great  eloquence  and  learning,  the  reforming  of  philosophy,  by 
ibuflding  it  on  the  observation  of  Nature,  though  he  is  not,  perhaps, 
to  be  regarded  as  the  first  who  made  this  great  step  towards  the 
advancement  of  science. 

Bacon,  (Roger,)  an  English  monk  of  the  thirteenth  century,  distin- 
rruished  for  his  discoveries  in  chemistry  and  natural  philosophy. 
For  an  account  of  him,  see  the  second  volume  of  '  Pursuit  of 
Knowledge  under  Difficulties,'  being  volume  xv.  of  'The  School 
Library,'  Larger  Series. 

Bahrr's  '  Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of  England,'  a-work  written  by  Sir 
Richard  Baker,  who  was  born  in  the  county  of  Kent,  in  England, 
about  A.  D.  15G8,  and  died  Feb.  18,  1G44-5. 

Dalcnrcll,  (Robert,)  an  Entrlish  <rrazier,  wiio  was  born  at  Dishley,  in 
Leicestershire,  A.  D.  1726,  and  died  in  ll'.C).  He  obtained  great 
celebr.ty  by  his  strenuous  efforts  to  improve  tlie  breed  of  cattle  ;  in 
effeetiiig  wliich  object,  he  travelled  over  England,  Ireland,  and  Hol- 
land. 

Dannorhburn,  battle  of.,  a  sanguinary  engagement,  which  took  place 
near  the  village  of  Uannockburn,  in  Scotland,  on  the  River  Ban- 
nock, between  the  English  and  Scottish  armies,  June  '24,  i:U4,  in 
which  the  English  were  defeated.  The  contending  armies  were 
commanded  by  the  Sovereigns  of  England  and  Scotland,  Edward  II. 


406  GLOSSARY. 

and  Robert  Bruce ;  and  the  issue  of  the  battle  decided  the  question 
of  the  liberty  of  Scotland. 
Bariila,  the  ashes  of  certain  marine  plants. 
BarLie,  barley. 

Batoon,  or  batten,  (called  also  a  lay.)  that  part  of  a  weaving  loom,  in 
which  the  reed  is  placed,  and  which,  moving  backwards  and  for- 
wards, presses  the  crossing  threads,  or  weft,  close  together,  after 
each  passage  of  the  shuttle  through  the  warp. 
Battering-rum,  an  ancient  military  engine,  consisting  of  a  long  and 
heavy  wooden  beam  with  an  iron  end  shaped  like  a  ram's  head, 
suspended   from  a  frame    of  timber,  and  employed   for  battering 
down   walls. 
Beaters,  in  a  cotton-cleaning  machine,  are  projections  on  a  revolving 
cylinder,  by  which  the  cotton   is   struck   with   great  velocity  and 
force    as  it   passes  into  the  machine,  and  is  thus  loosened  and  pre- 
pared for  carding. 
Becket,  Thomas  a,  a  celebrated  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  who  was  born 
in  Loudon,  A.  D.  1119,  was  made   Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in 
1162,  and  was  killed,  December  22,  1170.     He  was  a  haughty  and 
imperious  prelate,  yet  after  his  death  he  was  canonized,  or  called  a 
saint,  and  many  miracles  were  said  to  have  been   wrought  at  his 
tomb. 
Beckmann,  (John   Anthony,)   an    ingenious    and   learned    scholar,  a 
native  of  Hoye,  in   Hanover,  who  in   1767  became   Professor   of 
Physic  in  the  University  of  Gottingen,  where  he  died  in  1811.     He 
wrote  many  works  ;  one  of  whiclr,  a  '  History  of  Discoveries  and 
Inventions,'  has  been  translated  into  English. 
Bcrgmann,  (Torbern  Olof,)  a  Swedish  natural  philosopher,  physician, 
and  chemist,  who  was  born  March  9,  1735,  and  died  in  17!:;4,  ex- 
hausted by  his  exertions  in  the  cause  of  science.     He  was  Professor 
of  Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy,  and  also  of  Chemistry,  at 
the  University  of  Upsal,  and  was  a  member  of  most  of  the  learned 
Societies  of  Europe.     He  made  many  discoveries  in  science,  and 
published   many  learned  works. 
Betil,  or  bevel,  an  instrument  composed  of  two  straight   edges   or 
blades,  connected  at  one  end  as  a  centre,  and  movable,  so  as  to 
form  an\'  desired  angle. 
Bin,  a  box  or  place  parted  oiF  for  the  reception  of  corn,  bread,  or  any 

other  article  in  bulk. 
Bismuth,  a  brittle  metal,  of  a  reddish  white  color,  very  fusible,  rcouir- 

ing  but  little  heat  to  melt  it. 
Bitartrute,  a  compound,  having  two  proportions  of  tartaric  acid. 
Black,  (Dr.  Joseph.)  a  very  celebrated  modern  chemist,  who  was  born 
of  British  parents,  at  Bordeaux,  in  France,  A.  D.  1728,  and  died 
in  Edinburgh,  November  26,  1799,  in  the  seventy-first  year  of  his 
age. 
Black  drop,  a  preparation  of  opium  and  acetic  acid,  or  vinegar. 
Blast,  the  introduction  of  air,  either  hot  or  cold,  into  a  furnace,  to  pro- 
mote combustion. 
Bloom,  the  blue  color  upon  plums  and  grapes  newly  gathered. 
Boors,  uncivilized  peasants. 

Bossvt,  (Charles,)  an  eminent  French   mathematician,  who  was  born 
at  Lyons,  in  1730,  and  died   in  1814.      He  was  author  of  several 
valuable  works  on  Mathematics. 
Bowing,  a  process  in  the  preparation  of  furs  for  making  hats.     It  is 


GLOSSARY.  407 

performed  witli  a  bow  made  of  a  pole  seven  or  eijrht  feet  in  length, 
to  which  are  fixed  two  bridges  somewhat  like  tliose  of  a  violin,  and 
over  which   is  stretched   a  catgut.     The  bow  is  held   horizontal!}' 
among    the    fur,  when  the    string  is   stretched    and    spruno-  ;    the 
elasticity  of  the  string  scatters  tiie  fur,  and  by  repeated  strokes 
opens  and  separates  the  filaments,  till  it  is  all   in  a  fit  condition  for 
felting,  or  making  into  felt,  the  substance  of  which  the  bodies  of 
hats  are  generally  composed. 
Boyle,  (Robert.)  a  celebrated  natural   philosopher,  who  was  born  at 
Lismore,  in  Ireland,  January  '2G,  1627,  and  died  at  London  in  1()91. 
For  a  ftirther  notice  of  him,  see  '  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Diffi- 
culties,' Vol.  ii.,  forming  the  fifteenth  volume  of  the  Larger  Series 
of 'The  School  Libk.\ry.' 
Bramah,  (Joseph,)  a  very  ingenious  English  engineer  and   mechani- 
cian,  who  was  born   in  Yorkshire,  April   13,  1749,  and   died   near 
London,  December  'J,  1614.     He   distinguished   himself  by  his  in- 
ventions, particularly  by  his  locks,  and  his  hydraulic  press,  and  for 
his  improvements  in  fire  engines. 
Brantuine,  (so  called,  from  an  Abbey  which  he  possessed,  but  whose 
real  name  was  Pierre  de  Bourdeilles,)  a  French  courtier  of  the  reio-ns 
of  Charles  IX.  and  Henry  III.,  who  was  born  A.  D.  lo27,  and  ched 
in  1G14.     He  wrote  several  works;  and  his  memoirs  of  his  contem- 
poraries form  fifteen  volumes. 
Biassica,  the  generic  name  for  the  cabbage,  and  plants  of  that  family. 
Brcnning,  huin'ing.     Brenning  of  tcUd-Jirc,  highly -seasoned. 
Briarean,  having  many  hands;   from  Briareus,  a  fabled  giant,  who  is 

said  to  have  had  one  hundred  hands  and  fifty  heads. 
Broccoli,  a  species  of  cabbage. 

Bruncll,  (M.  J.,)  a  skilful  and  enterprising  English  engineer,  who 
projected,  and  is  still  (1840)  superintending,  the  construction  of  a 
tunnel  or  passage  under  the  River  Thames,  from  one  side  to  the  other. 
Burleigh,  (William   Cecil,)  Lord,    a  celebrated    English  statesman, 
who  was  born  in  1520,  and  died  in  1598.     He  was  characterized  a.s 
"  the  oldest,  the   gravest,  and  the  greatest  statesman  in  Christen- 
dom."    He  was  Secretary  of  State  to  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Busked,  adorned,  decorated,  prepared,  made  ready. 
Cadmium,  a  metal  of  a  light  whitish  color,  resembling  tin,  but  some- 
what harder  and  more  tenacious.     It  was  discovered  in   1617,  by 
Professor  Stromcyer. 
C<tsar,  (Caius  Julius,)  a  very  distinguished  Roman  general,  emperor, 
statesman,  and  historian,  who  was  born  B.  C.  100.     He  is  said  to 
have  been  victorious  in  five  hundred  battles,  and  wrote  Commen- 
taries on  the  wars  in  which  he  was  engaged,  on  tiie  spot  where  his 
battles   were    fought.     He   was  assassinated   at  Rome,  March  15, 
B.  C.  44.     Caesar  was  also  the  family  name  of  the  first  five  Roman 
emperors,  and  the  surname  given  to  tlie  next  seven  ;  and  became, 
stibsequently,  the  Eecond,and  finally  the  third,  title  of  dignity  under 
the  emperors 
Calamine,  carbonate  of  zinc. 

Cam.  (from  the  French  cflme,alift,)  a  wheel,  the  a.\is  of  which  is  not  sit- 
uated in  its  centre,  and  the  object  of  whicii  is  to  produce  an  eccen- 
tric, or  alternate,  motion,  in  any  part  exposed  to  its  action. 
CamjHin,  Madame,  (Jeanne  Louise  Henrielte,)  a  French  lady,  who 
was  born  at  Paris,  October  G,  1752,  and  died  March  10,  1622.  She 
was  attached  to  the  family  of  Marie  Antoinette,  wife  of  Louis  XVI., 


408  GLOSSARY. 

King  of  France  ;  and  was  afterwards  principal  of  a  school  founded 
by  tiie  Emperor  Napoleon,  for  tlie  daughters  of  some  of  his  officers. 
She  wrote  Memoirs  of  the  Private  Lite  of  the  Queen,  with  Recol- 
lections of  Ijouis  XIV.,  XV.,  and  XVI.,  and  other  works. 

Caoutchouc,  elastic  gum,  or  India  rubber. 

Caovtchoticine,  a  liquid  obtained  from  caoutchouc,  by  distillation. 

Ca/;ort,  a  kind  of  poultry. 

Caibonate,  a  comjjound,  or  salt,  containing  carbonic  acid.  Carhonate 
of  ammonia,  a  compound  of  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia. 

Carbonic  acid,  a  gas  composed  of  carbon  and  oxygen.  It  has  lately 
been  obtained  in  a  solid  form. 

Caseous,  resembling  cheese. 

Castelled,  surrounded  or  adorned  with  turrets  and  battlements,  like  a 
castle. 

Cato,  (Marcus  Porcius,)  the  Roman  farmer,  called  also  the  Censor, 
from  his  having  exercised  that  office,  was  born  at  Tusculum,  B.  C. 
232.  He  cultivated  a  small  farm  with  his  own  hands,  and  died  in 
an  extreme  old  age,  about  B.  C.  147.  He  composed  many  works, 
only  one  of  which,  a  treatise  on  Husbandry,  now  remains. 

Cementation,  a  chemical  process,  by  which  the  character  of  a  metal 
is  changed,  as  iron  into  steel,  copper  into  brass.  Glass  is  also 
changed  into  porcelain,  by  cementation. 

Centre-bit,  an  instrument  turning  on  a  centre,  used  by  carpenters, 
cabinet-makers,  &c.,  for  making  circular  holes. 

Ceites,  certainly. 

Champagne,  a  particular  kind  of  wine,  originally  made  in  Cham- 
pagne, in  France. 

Chaptal,  (Jean  Antoine  Claude,)  Count  of  Chanteloup,  and  Peer  of 
France,  a  distinguished  physician,  chemist,  and  author,  who  was 
born  A.  D.  1756,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  medicine 
and  the  natural  sciences.  He  was  author  of  many  valuable  works, 
on  national  industry,  chemistry,  the  cultivation  of  the  vine,  chem- 
istry applied  to  the  arts  and  agriculture,  6lc.  &c. 

Charing-cross,  a  large  open  triangular  space  in  London,  fronting  on 
some  of  the  principal  streets.  A  large  marble  cross  formerly  stood 
in  the  centre  of  it,  wliich  was  erected  by  King  Edward  I.,  and  de- 
stroyed by  the  Republicans  in  1643.  A  statue  of  Charles  I.  on  horse- 
back, in  brass,  was  erected  upon  the  same  spot,  on  the  restoration 
of  Charles  II. 

Charles  If.,  King  of  England  and  Scotland,  born  in  1630,  was  the 
son  of  Charles  I.  He  became  King,  May  29,  1660,  and  died  Feb- 
ruary, 1685.     He  was  a  licentious  and  immoral  prince. 

Chaucer,  (Geoffrey.)  one  of  the  greatest,  as  well  as  most  ancient  of 
the  English  poets,  born  in  London,  A.  D.  1328,  and  died  October 
24,  1400.     He  is  considered  the  "  father  of  English  poetry." 

Chauiige,  change. 

Chloride,  a  compound  of  chlorine  and  some  other  substance. 

Chlorine,  a  simple  substance,  formerly  called  oxymuriatic  acid.  In 
its  pure  state,  it  is  a  gas,  and,  like  oxygen,  supports  the  combustion 
of  some  inllammable  substances. 

Chromate,  a  compound  of  chromic  acid  with  some  other  substance. 

Chrome,  oi  Chrominm.,  a  brittle  metal,  of  a  yellowish  white  color. 

Chromic  arid,  an  acid  of  which  chromium  is  the  basis. 

Cicero,  (Marcus  TuHius,)  the  most  distinguished  writer  and  orator  of 
Rome,  who  was  born  B.  C.  106,  and  died  December  7,  B.  C.  43. 


GLOSSARY.  409 

Citric  acid,  tlie  acid  obtained  from  the  juice  of  lemons  or  limes. 

Clepe,  to  call.     Cicpcd,  called. 

Cloaca  maxima,  a  large  subterranean  passage  or  street,  constructea 
under  ground  by  tlio  Roniatis,  for  the  purpose  of  purifying  their 
city,  and  draining  oft*  the  tiltli,  &.C.,  from  the  houses  and  streets. 

Clutch,  a  projecting  tooth  on  a  wheel  or  other  piece  of  machinery, 
intended  to  connect  two  or  more  parts  of  a  machine  moved  by 
the  same  power,  so  that  one  can  be  stopped  while  the  other  is  in 
motion. 

Cn'iguluia,  that  which  has  the  power  of  coagulating,  or  making  hard. 

Cobalt,  a  brittle  metal,  of  a  reddish  gray  color,  and  weak  metallic 
lustre. 

Cocoa-nut  lard,  the  oil  of  the  cocoa-nut-,  in  a  state  of  lard. 

Colic,  (Thomas  William,)  now  Earl  of  Leicester,  a  celebrated  English 
agriculturist,  who  was  born  about  A.  D.  1748.  He  was  made  Earl 
of  Leicester  by  Queen  Victoria. 

Commissariiil,  the  body  of  olficers  providing  provisions  for  an  army. 

Cop,  the  conical  ball  of  thread  wound  on  tlie  spindle  of  a  spinning 
frame,  whence  it  is  reeled,  or  transferred  to  bobbins. 

Cotes,  (old  Scotch,)  coats. 

Coi(fr,  a  coif  or  headdress,  a  lady's  cap. 

Daie,  day. 

Da<rsiDainc ,  a  rough,  coarse  mantle. 

Dami'ini,  (Peter,)  a  cardinal  of  the  Romish  Church, who  died  A. D.  1073. 

Dutu,  admitted  truths. 

Davy.  (Sir  Humphrey.)  one  of  the  most  distinguished  chemists  of  the 
age,  who  was  born  in  Cornwall,  England.  A.  D.  1779,  and  died  in 
\ri2d.  See  'Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  DifScuIties,'  V'ol.  ii., 
forming  the  fifteenth  volume  of  'The  School  Library,'  Larger 
Series. 

Decolorant,  a  substance  which  extracts  color. 

Decoloration,  an  extraction  of  the  color  from  any  substance. 

Dncrees,  French,  decrees  passed  by  the  French  government,  in  1807, 
prohibiting  the  trading  of  neutral  vessels  to  any  port  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, with  whom  France  was  then  at  war.     See  Orders  in  Cmincil. 

Democritus,  a  celebrated  philosopher  of  Abdera,  a  city  of  Thrace, 
who  was  born  about  B.  C.  470,  and  died  about  B.  C.  3G1. 

Dishitrsratinir,  separating  into  particles. 

Domrsdaij  (or  doomsday)  booh,  a  very  ancient  record,  made  A.  D. 
108!  tD  108G,  containing  a  survey  of  nearly  all  the  estates  inEngland 

Donnrd,  put  on,  invested  witli. 

Ductor,  (Latin,)  a  guide,  leader,  or  conveyor. 

E:tst.  The  countries  in  Asia,  being  east  of  Europe,  are  generally 
spoken  of  as  the  East,  or  Eastern  or  Oriental  World. 

Ed  h/slone  lighthouse,  a  lighthouse  built  on  some  ridges  of  rocks  in 
the  English  Cliannel,  where  the  ocean  swell  is  very  tremendous. 
The  foundation  of  the  lighthouse  is  one  entire  solid  niass  of  stones 
to  the  height  of  thirty  feet.  These  stones  are  engrafted  into  each 
other,  and  united  by  every  means  of  additional  strength.  The 
whole  height  is  about  eighty  feet.  The  first  lighthouse  here  was 
erected  in  KiiM),  but  it  was  destroyed  by  a  storm  in  17l)!5.  Another 
was  built  in  170rt,  and  wis  destroyed  in  1755.  A  third  was  erected 
in  1759.  and  withstood  all  tlie  rage  of  the  weather,  till  1830,  when 
it  was  found  necessary  to  rebuild  it. 

Eden,  (Sir  Frederic  Morton,)  an  English  statesman,  and  statistical 

35  s.  A. 


410  GLOSSARY. 

writer,  who  died  in  London.  November  14,  1S09.     He  was  ambas- 
sador to  Berlin,  Vienna,  and  Madrid,  and  author  of  several  works. 

Edward  II.,  King  of  England,  son  of  Edward  I.,  was  born  A.  D. 
12;-1,  and  died  September  21,  1327.  He  commanded  the  English 
army  at  the  battle  of  Bannockburn. 

Edicard  III.,  King  of  England,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  A.  D. 
1313,  proclaimed  King  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and  died  June  '2\,  1377 

Electro-magnetic,  pertaining  to  the  science  of  electro-magnetism, 
which  shows  the  connection  of  electricity  and  magnetism. 

Elements,  Euclid's,  see  Euclid. 

Elixir  of  life,  see  .ilchymist. 

Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England,  and  one  of  its  most  celebrated  Sover- 
eigns, was  daughter  of  Henry  \  III.  and  born  A.  D.  1533.  She 
was  proclaimed  Queen  in  155s,  and  died  March  24,  1G03. 

English  .Money  is  calculated  in  pounds,  (marked  £.,)  shillings,  pence, 
and  farthings.     There  are  also  guineas  and  crowns. 
.\  pound  contains  20  shillings,  and  is  now  worth  about  4  dollars  87  cents. 
"   shilling      "         1-2   pence,         "  "  24|    " 

"    penny        "  4   farthings,   '•'  "  2      " 

"    farthing  is  worth  about 5     " 

"    guinea  is  worth  about  5  dollars  T  cenL'i.     A  crown,  about  1  dollar  fo  cent-s. 

Epsom-salts,  sulphate  of  magnesia.  It  was  first  procured  from  the 
springs  of  Epsom,  in  England,  whence  its  name.  It  is  now  pro- 
cured from  sea  water.     Se6  page  42. 

Erasmus,  (Desiderius,)  a  celebrated  scholar,  who  was  born  in  Rotter- 
dam, October  2S,  1467,  and  died  July  12,  1536. 

Etruscan,  belonging  to  Etruria,  (now  Tuscany,")  a  region  of  ancient 
Italy,  on  the  Mediterranean,  north  of  the  Tiber.  The  inhabit- 
ants were  remarkable  for  their  skill  in  the  useful  and  elegant  arts. 

Euclid,  a  celebrated  mathematician,  who  was  born  in  Alexandria,  in 
Egypt,  about  B.  C.  2~0.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his  writings 
on  ilusic  and  Geometry;  and  his  '  Elements  of  Geometry'  is  in 
use  at  the  present  day. 

Eac  simile,  an  exact  copv. 

Fahrhihcit,  (Gabriel  Daniel,)  a  celebrated  natural  philosopher,  who 
was  born  at  Daiitzic,  A.  D.  1686.  He  made  great  improvements  in 
the  thermometer ;  and  his  name  is  sometimes  used  for  that  instru- 
ment. 

Falstaff,  (Sir  John.)  a  celebrated  character  in  Shakspeare's  Drama  of 
Henry  IV. 

Felspar,  or  Feldspar,  a  constituent  part  of  numerous  rocks.  Its  lus- 
tre is  shining-,  and  its  colors  white,  gray,  yellowish,  and  reddish 
while.     It  decays  readily,  and  forms  soil,  and  also  porcelain  earth. 

Fdlenbcrg,  (Emanuel  de,)  a  celebrated  and  benevolent  individual, 
who  established  a  school  at  Hofwyl,  in  Switzerland,  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  young  persons  in  tlie  theory  and  practice  of  agriculture. 

To  Felt,  to  unite  without  weaving ;  to  make  felt,  or  the  substance  of 
which  the  bodies  of  hats  are  generally  composed. 

Fesles,  feasts. 

Flfsche,  flesh. 

Fletcher,  (Andrew,)  a  Scottish  political  writer  and  patriot,  who  was 
born  at  Saltoun,  Scotland,  A.  D.  1653,  and  died  in  London,  in  1716. 

Flocculent,  resembling  locks  of  wool,  down,  or  cotton. 

Flock-bed.  a  bed  filled  witii  locks  of  wool,  or  pieces  of  cloth  cut  up 
very  fine. 

FluoT'Spar,  or  flaat<»  of  lime,  lime  combined  with  fluoric  acid,  a  beau 


GLOSSARY.  4  1 1 

tiful  brittle  mineral,  of  diftercnt  colors,  soinelimca  transparent, 
and  generally  occurring  in  a  beautifully  crystallized  state.  Tlu;  most 
elegant  is  found  at  Derbyshire,  in  England,  where  it  is  wrought 
into  vases,  candlesticks,  and  other  ornaments  ;  and  is  thence  called 
Derbyshire  spar. 

Fli/crs,  forked  pieces  of  iron  attached  to  the  spindles  of  a  spinning 
iVaine,  the  object  of  which  is  to  receive  the  thread,  twist  it,  and 
convey  it   to   the  bobbin  on  which  it  is  wound. 

Formula:,  plural  oi'  formida,  a  prescribed  form. 

Fortescue,  (Sir  Joiiii,)  an  eminent  English  Judge  and  writer  on  the 
law,  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Henry  V'l.  and  Edward  IV. 
He  was  made  Chief  Justice  of  the  Court  of  King's  Bench,  \.  D. 
I44"2,  and  wrote  many  valuable  works.     He  died  about  A.  D.  14G5. 

fVa,  from. 

Franc,  a  French  silver  coin,  worth   about  eighteen  and  a  half  cents. 

Franldin,  (Benjamin,)  a  celebrated  philosopiier,  patriot,  and  states- 
man, who  was  born  January  17,  170(>,  in  Boston,  and  died  in  Phil- 
adelpiiia,  April  17,  17!H),  at  the  age  of  eighty-four.  His  life  will  be 
given  in  one  of  the  volumes  of  'The  School  Library.' 

Free  cities,  cities  enjoying  an  independent  government,  subject  to  no 
person  or  state,  and  each  forming  an  independent  republic. 

Frontal,  belonging  to,  or  at,  the  front. 

Fulcrum,  the  goint  of  support  on  which  a  lever  rests.     See  page  90. 

Fulton,  (Robert,)  an  eminent  engineer  and  meciianist,  to  whom  the 
world  is  indebted  for  the  first  successful  application  of  steam-power 
to  navigation.  For  his  biography,  see  the  fourth  volume  of  'The 
School  Library,'   Larger  Series. 

Galen,  (Claudius.)  one  of  the  most  celebrated  physician.^  of  ancient 
times,  who  was  born  at  Pergamus,  in  Asia  Minor,  A.  D.  ];il,  and 
died  about  A.  D.  iJOO.  He  is  said  to  have  written  seven  hundred 
and  fitly  works,  only  a  part  of  which  have  been  preserved. 

Galileo  (Galilei.)  a  celebrated  astronomer,  mathematician,  and  natural 
philosopher,  who  was  born  at  Florence,  (or.  as  some  say,  at  Pisa.) 
a  city  of  Tuscany,  in  Italy,  February  1!),  I5(J4,  and  died  Januarys, 
]()4'2,  in  the  seventy-eighth  year  of  his  age.  See  '  Pursuit  of 
Knowledge  under  Difficulties,'  forming  volumes  xiv.  and  xv.  of 
'The  School  Library,'  Larger  Series. 

Galvanic,  relating  to  Galvanism,  a  branch  of  the  science  of  electrici- 
ty, first  discovered  by  Galvani,  a  professor  of  Bologna,  whence  its 
name.  The  electricity  is  developed  by  a  chemioal  action  which 
takes  place  between  certain  bodies,  such  as  plates  of  different 
metals,  separated  by  moist  pieces  of  cloth  or  an  acid  mixture.  Sec 
Volta. 

rias^ric,  relating  to  the  stomach.  Gastric  juice,  ihc  Hn'iti  which  dis- 
solves the  food  in  the  stomach. 

Geologist,  one  skilled  in  geolorry,  or  the  science  which  treats  of  the 
rocks  and  other  substances  of  which  the  earth  is  composed. 

George  (Augustus)  //.,  King  of  Great  Britain,  son  of  George  I.  He 
was  born  A.  D.  l()3:J,  ascended  the  throne  in  1727,  and  died  Octo- 
ber 2.'),  17ti0. 

Ginlel,  a  girdle. 

Girdlcr,  one  who  makes  girdles. 

Gin,  a  machine  for  raising  great  weights  ;  also  a  machine  for  cleans- 
ing cotton  from  the  seed.     See  page  145. 

Glitterande,  glittering,  shining,  sparkling. 


412  GL055AKT. 

Gluten,  glue  ;  thai  part  of  the  blood  \vhicJi  gives  firmness  to  its  tex- 
ture ;  also,  a  tenacious,  ductile  substance,  procured  from  most  kinds 
of  grain,  as  wheat,  by  repealed  washings  of  the  flour  in  large  quan- 
tities of  water,  which  dissolves  the  tecula  or  starch,  and  leaves  the 
gluten  behind.     It  is  the  most  nutritious  part  of  vegetables. 

Got/tic,  a  style  of  architecture  principally  used  in  churches,  and  which 
is  sometimes  called  the  ecclesiastical  style.  Its  principle  seems  to 
have  originated  in  the  imitation  of  groves  and  bowers  of  trees,  un- 
der which  the  ancients  performed  tlieir  sacred  rites.  It  is  charac- 
terized by  pointed  arches,  pinnacles  and  spires,  clustered  pillars, 
&c.  See  the  first  volume  of  Bigelow"s  '  Useful  Arts,'  forming  the 
eleventh  volume  of  '  The  School  Libr.^rv.' 

Graciehss,  graceless,  abandoned,  wicked,  witliout  elegance. 

Greene,  (Nathaniel,)  one  of  the  major-generals  in  the  American 
arm}',  during  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  born  in  Warwick,  Rhode 
Island,  A.  D.  174"2.  He  was  the  son  of  a  blacksmith,  and  indebted 
to  his  own  exertions  for  his  education.  His  life  is  to  be  read  in  the 
history  of  the  American  Revolution.  He  was  remarkable  for  per- 
sonal courage,  resolute  firmness  of  mind,  prudence,  and  judgement. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  forty-four,  June  IS),  l/cti. 

Grete,  great. 

Grist,  supply,  quantity 

Guericke,  Octo,  the  most  celebrated  mathematician  and  philosopher  of 
bis  time.  He  was  born  at  Magdebuig,  in  Saxony,  A.  D.  1(592,  and 
died  at  Hamburg,  when  on  a  visit  to  that  city,  in  lOSG. 
.  Guizot,  (F.)  a  distm^nished  French  statesman  and  writer,  who  was 
born  at  iS'ismes,  October  4,  IT??.  He  studied  law  at  Paris,  and 
published  several  works  before  he  attained  his  twenty-fifth  year. 
He  enjasred  in  public  affairs,  and  in  ld3"2  became  a  member  of 
the  French  cabinet,  and  afterwards  prime  minister. 

Gymnasium,  (plural  gymnas'a,)  a  school  for  exercises,  adapted  to  de- 
velope  the  powers  of  the  body,  and  preserve  them  in  perfection. 
The  name  is  from  the  Greek  -/ikioc,  {aymnos,  naked.)  and  in  the 
ancient  gj^mnasia  at  Sparta,  the  young  men  engaged  naked  in  the 
exercises,  which  consisted  in  leaping,  running,  wrestling,  &c. 

Gypsum,  or  sulphate  of  lime,  a  mineral  of  great  importance.  One 
form  of  it  is  alabaster,  employed,  from  its  whiteness  and  beauty, 
for  statuary  and  ornaments;  another  is  plaster  of  Paris,  employed 
lor  the  fine  plastering  in  the  finishing  of  walls  and  ceilings,  and  of 
great  use  as  a  manure  for  land. 

Hannibal,  a  celebrated  creneral  of  Carthao-e,  in  Africa,  who  was  born 
13.  C.  243.  and  died  B.  C.  183. 

Harrison,  (William.)  an  English  historian,  who  died  A.  D.  1.j!''3.  He 
was  author  of  '  An  Historical  Description  of  the  Island  of  Britaine, 
in  Three  Books,'  prefi.^ed  to  the  '  Ciironicles  '  of  Holingshed. 

Harte,  (Walter.)  an  English  divine,  poet,  and  historian,  wiio  was  born 
about  A.  D.  1715,  and  died  in  1773.  He  published  several  works; 
among  them,  '  Essays  on  Husbandry.' 

Heather,  heath,  a  beautiful  low  shrubby  plant,  admired  on  account  of 
its  lasting  verdure,  light  foliage,  and  the  elegance  of  its  flowers.  It 
is  of  the  genus  Erica. 

Heckling,  or  hatchelling,  beating  of  flax,  separating,  tearing  asunder. 

Hed,  had,  took,  or  went;  also,  the  head. 

Henry,  (Robert.)  author  of  a  History  of  England,  in  five  volumes.  He 
was  born  near  Stirling,  in  Scotland,  A.  D'.  1718.  and  died  in  1790. 


GLOSSARY.  413 

Henrij  HI.,  King  of  England,  was  bom  A.  D.  1207,  succeeded  his 
lallier,  Jolin,  in  liilli,  being  only  nine  years  old,  and  died  in  1272. 
He  was  a  weak  prince,  and  unfit  for  liis  liiglj  slalion. 

Ilcnrij  v.,  King  of  England,  was  born  A.  1).  13drf,  and  succeeded  his 
father,  Henry  iV.,  in~'l413.  He  defeated  the  French  at  the  battle  of 
Agincourt,  (which  see.)  and  died  in  14:22. 

Ilciirij  I'll.,  King  of  England,  born  A.  U.  14r>7,  and  proclaimed  King 
on  tiic  battle  field  of  Bosworth,  where  he  had  defeated  the  usurper, 
Richard  HI.,  in  14ri.').  His  reign  was  beneficial  to  liis  country, 
and  he  died  much  beloved,  in  I.jUi). 

Ilrnnj  I'lll.,  King  of  England,  was  born  in  1491,  and  succeeded  his 
father,  Henry  V 11  ,  in  loOL».  He  was  a  well-educated  prince,  but 
his  reign  was  arbitrary  and  tyrannical.  He  began  the  Reformation, 
in  England,  by  throwing  ofT  the  usurpations  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 
He  died  January  28,  ir)47. 

llr.rmbsUzdt,  (Sigismund  Frederic.)  a  celebrated  German  chemist  and 
writer,  who  was  born  at  Erfurt,  April  14,  17(30. 

IhnneticaUy,  chemically  ;  a  glass  tube  or  other  vessel  is  said  to  be 
sealed  hermetically,  when  the  neck  is  heated  till  it  be  ready  to  melt, 
and  then  twisted,  so  as  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  a  particle  of  air. 

UcrschcL  (Sir  William,)  an  eminent  astronomer,  remarkable  for  liis 
unwearied  devotion  to  observations  of  the  heavens,  for  the  con- 
struction of  large  and  powerful  telescopes,  and  for  his  discovery 
of  the  planet  which  has  received  his  name.  He  was  born  in  1738, 
and  died  in  1822.  His  son,  John  F.  W.  Herschel,  is  also  an  able 
and  distinguished  astronomer. 

llcsidd,  a  celebrated  poet,  born  at  Ascra,  in  Boeotia,  a  province  of 
Greece,  about  nine  hundred  j'ears  before  Christ.  He  was  the  first 
who  wrote  a  poem  on  agriculture,  and  is  admired  for  the  elegance 
of  his  diction,  and  the  sweetness  of  his  poetry. 

Ilic,  high  ;  to  make  haste  ;  to  iiaslen. 

llicro,  a  king  of  Syracuse,  the  friend  and  patron  of  Archimedes.  He 
died  about  B.  C.  22.'>,  in  the  ninety-fourth  year  of  his  age,  univer- 
sally regretted  ;  and  the  Sicilians  showed,  by  their  lamentations, 
that  they  had  lost  a  common  father  and  friend.     See  Archimedes. 

Hirtilrss,  heartless,  spiritless,  without  courage. 

Holiii^shed.  (Raphael.)  an  English  historian,  who  died  about  A.  D. 
1582.  His  '  Chronicles,'  first  published  in  1377,  in  two  volumes, 
folio,  Iiave  been  much  celebrated. 

Homer,  a  celebrated  Greek  poet,  who  is  supposed  to  have  flourished 
between  eight  hundred  and  one  thousand  years  before  Christ.  But 
little  satisfactory  is  known  respecting  him. 

Ho  the,  (Robert,)  an  eminent  English  philosopher  and  mathematician, 
who  was  born  at  Freshwater,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  1G35,  and 
died  in  1702.     His  writings  are  numerous  and  valuable. 

HopUarlots,  a  rough,  coarse  cloth,  like  that  of  which  are  made  the 
ba<Ts  in   which   iiops  are  packed. 

lloice'l,  (William,  LL.D.,)  an  English  historical  writer,  who  died  in 
1G88.    He  was  author  of  a  '  History  of  the  World.'  and  other  works. 

lluddiirt,  (Joseph.)  an  eminent  navigator  and  hydrographer,  who  was 
born  A.  D.  1741,  and  died  in  I8lt).  The  loss  of  his  cables  in  a 
tempest  during  one  of  his  voyages,  led  him  to  seek  a  remedy  against 
similar  accidents,  and  he  invented  a  kind  of  rope  which  has  since 
been  used  in  the  British  navy. 

Hume   (David,)  a  celebrated  philosopher  and  historian,  who  was  born 

35* 


414  GLOSSARY. 

at  Edinburgh,  in  1711,  and  died  August  25,  1776.  He  published 
'  Essays,'  which  are  strongly  tinctured  with  infidelity,  and  a  '  His- 
tory of  England,'  which  has  been  much  celebrated,  but  is  in  many 
respects  untaiihl'ul.  unfair,  and  partial ;  and  leans  towards  princi- 
ples utterly  subversive  of  all  good  government. 

Huygcns,  (Christian.)  a  very  celebrated  Dutch  mathematician  and 
astronomer,  who  was  born  at  the  Hague,  in  1029,  and  died  in  16LI5. 

Hydraulic,  relating  to  tlie  motion  or  force  of  water.  Hydraulic  press, 
a  machine  in  which  the  I'orce  of  water  is  Employed,  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  an  immense  pressure.  For  a  description  of  this  press, 
(also  called  the  Hydrostatic  press.)  see  page  64. 

Ilk,  each,  every. 

Inquisition,  a  tribunal,  or  court,  in  some  Roman  Catholic  countries, 
for  the  suppression  of  heresies.  It  was  at  one  time  very  powerful. 
It  conducted  all  its  investigations  in  secret,  employing  the  most 
cruel  tortures  to  compel  its  victims  to  confess  the  crimes  with 
v.-hich  they  were  charged. 

Iodine,  a  simple  substance,  of  a  grayish  black  color,  and  metallic  lus- 
tre, having  a  violet-colored  vapor.  It  is  obtained  from  marine  plants. 

hory  black,  or  animal  charcoal,  the  dust  or  shavings  of  ivory  burnt 
in  close  vessels  and  reduced  to  powder. 

Jacquard,  a  peculiar  and  ingenious  mechanism  invented  by  M.  Jac- 
quart,  of  Lyons,  in  France,  to  be  adapted  to  a  silk  or  muslin  loom, 
for  tlie  purpose  of  superseding  the  empioymeut  of  children  for 
drawing  the  cords  in  weaving  figured  goods. 

Japanned,  varnished  in  a  particular  manner,  called  japanning. 

Julius  Casur,  see  CcEsar. 

Karnes,  (Henry  Home.)  Lord,  a  celebrated  Scotch  nobleman  and  judge, 
who  was  born  in  lUl'G,  and  died  December  27,  17?2.  He  was  author 
of  many  valuable  works,  anions  which  were  •  Essays  on  Criticism,' 
'Art  of  Thinking,' 'The  Gentleman  Farmer,' and  other  valuable 
agricultural  papers. 

Kelp,  tiie  ashes  of  sea  weed. 

Kitlderminster  carpets,  a  particular  kind  of  carpeting,  first  manufac- 
tured at  Kidderminster,  a  market  town  of  England. 

King-post,  tlie  chief  beam  under  the  roof  of  a  house. 

Kirtlfs,  gowns,  women's  upper  garments. 

Knygkton,  (Henry.)  an  English  historian,  who  flourished  in  the  fif- 
teenth century.  He  was  author  of  a  '  History  of  English  Aflfairs,' 
an  '  Account  of  the  Deposition  of  Richard  11.'  &.c. 

Lac,  an  inflammable  orumuiy  substance  produced  by  an  insect  called 
Coccus  Lacca,  and  found  on  several  trees  in  the  East  Indies.  It 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  sealing  wax,  varnishes,  &c. 

Lavoisier,  (Anthony  Laurence,)  a  celebrated  French  chemist,  who 
was  born  in  1743.  His  philosophical  researches  were  very  exten- 
sive and  important  to  science.  He  was  put  to  death  as  mentioned 
on  pa?e  117. 

Laws  of  Xatiire,  the  laws  or  mode  bv  which  the  Deity  is  pleased  to 
act,  in  relation  to  the  works  of  Nature. 

Leicester,  (Robert  Dudley,)  Eirl  of,  the  favorite  of  Queen  Elizabetii, 
of  Ensfland,  was  born  in  1532,  and  died  in  September,  15SS. 

Leicester,  Eur  I  of,  see  Coke 

Lichen,  a  species  of  moss. 

Lirripipe,  or  Liripoop,  a  kind  of  hood,  or  covering  for  the  head. 

'Attell,  little. 

9 


GLOSSARY.  415 

Lond,  land. 

Longbicrds,  long  beards. 

LotiiT  ilunis,  green  or  coarse  manure,  of  whicli  straw  forms  a  part. 

Mc.ldani  rutuls,  roads  coustrucled  of  liard  stones  broken  into  small 
pieces  and  spread  upon  tlie  ground,  in  time  becoming  perfectly 
solid.     The  name  is  derived  from  the  introducer  of  the  system. 

McCiillvch,  (John  Robert.)  one  of  the  most  talented  British  writers  on 
political  economy,  &.C.,  who  was  born  in  Scotland  about  ITcJrf.  He 
has  within  a  few  years  been  appointed  Professor  of  Political  Econ- 
omy at  the  London  University. 

^f(K^der,  a  dye  stuff",  which,  by  the  use  of  different  mordants,  (or 
substances  used  to  fi.ic  the  colors.)  may  be  made  to  produce  every 
shade  of  red,  purple,  and  even  black 

Magnesia,  a  kind  of  earth,  light  and  white,  with  alkaline  proper- 
ties. 

.Malic  acid,  acid  of  apples. 

Mancr,  kind,  sort. 

Mii7igaucsc,  a  brittle  metal,  of  a  dull  whitish  color,  extremely  difficult 
to  melt,  of  great  use  in  chemistry  and  the  arts. 

.Muni/mlatons,  operations  by  iiand. 

Afarcliauntcs,  merchants. 

Mure.  more.     But  mure,  nothing  more. 

Mariner's  cnm/iass,  an  instrument  for  the  guidance  of  mariners,  in 
steering  their  course  on  the  ocean.  It  was  mvcnted  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  previous  to  which  time,  the  mariner's  only  guides 
were  the  heavenly  bodies  ;  and  in  cloudy  weather  he  had  nothintr 
to  direct  his  course.  Consequently  he  dared  not  venture  far  from 
the  land. 

Muximum,  the  largest  number  or  quantitj',  or  highest  point. 

Mcil,  a  part  or  portion,  a  measure  of  food,  or  any  thing  else. 

Mrlcs,  meats. 

Mica,  an  elastic  substance,  which,  wiien  obtained  in  thin  layers,  is 
transparent,  and  used  for  lanterns,  and  sometimes  for  windows.  It 
is  often  called  isinglass. 

Mineralized,  converted  into  a  mineral  substance. 

Mincralogic'il,  relating  to  mineralogy. 

Minimum,  the  smallest  number  or  quantity,  or  lowest  point. 

.^tinllS,  less. 

MiiiHlia,  llie  smallest  particulars. 

Munjsoii,  (Fines,)  an  English  writer,  who  was  born  A.  D.  15CG,  and 
died  about  I()I4.  He  published  '  An  Itinerary,  containing  ten 
3-ears"  travels  through  the  twelve  dominions  of  German)','  »S:c.,  and 
'  A  History  of  Ireland.' 

Muriate,  a  salt,  containing  muriatic  or  hydrochloric  acid. 

Muriatic  arid,  an  acid  composed  of  chlorine  and  hydrogen  ;  called, 
also,  hydrochloric  acid,  and  spirit  of  salt. 

Muriate  of  ammon'u,  a  salt  composed  of  ammonia  and  muriatic  acid. 

Muriate  of  lime,  a  salt  composed  of  muriatic  acid  and  lime. 

Muses.  There  were  nine  deities,  called  Muses,  in  heathen  mytliol- 
oiry,  each  of  whom  had  the  protection  or  patronage  of  some  partic- 
ular branch  of  science  or  art:  as  Clio,  of  history,  Euterpe,  of  mu- 
sic, Thalia,  of  comedy,  Melpomene,  of  tragedy,  Terpsichore,  of 
dancing,  Erato,  of  lyric  poetry,  Polyhymnia,  of  eloquence  and 
mimicrv.    Urania,   of    astronomy,    and    Calliope,  of   epic    poetry 


416  GLOSSARY. 

They  were  represented  as  beautiful  virgins,  and  were  worshipped 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

j^'oscent,  growing,  increasing,  beginning  to  exist  or  crrow. 

.XiUroii,  or  Soda,  an  alkah  obtained  from  marine  plants. 

Kuture,  Laics  of.     See  Imws. 

■Xaregur,  or  i\afe-gar,  an  auger,  a  wimble,  or  instrument  with  which 
holes  are  bored  in  the  naves  of  wheels.  «Scc. 

.Xetcton,  (Sir  Isaac.)  an  eminent  English  philosopher  and  mathemati- 
cian, who  was  born  on  Christmas  day,  1(542,  and  died  JVIarch  20, 
1727.  He  was  much  distinguished  for  his  very  important  discov- 
eries in  optics  and  other  branches  of  >iatural  Philosopliy.  See  the 
first  volume  of  '  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Difficulties,'  forming 
the  fourteenth  volume  of  •  Thk   School  Library.'  Larger  Series. 

JVUrate,  a  salt,  containing  nitric  acid. 

J\'Urc,  or  saltpetre,  nitrate  of  potass,  a  salt  used  in  making  gunpowder. 

jXitric  acid,  an  acid  composed  of  o.\j-cren  and  nitrogen. 

JVitrogeji,  or  azote,  a  simple  substance,  which  exists  in  the  atmosphere 
in  the  form  of  gas.     It  does  not  support  respiration  nor  flame. 

JVilrous,  having  the  qualities  of  nitre.  JS'itrotis  gas,  a  compound  of 
nitrogen  and  oxygen  gases. 

JVorman  Conquest.  In  the  year  1066,  William  the  First,  Duke  of 
Normandy,  invaded  England  with  his  Norman  followers,  and  ob- 
tained the  English  throne.  This  event  is  called  the  Norman  Inva- 
sion, or  Norman  Conquest. 

Orders  in  Council,  (British,)  orders  passed  in  1807,  by  the  British  gov- 
ernment in  cabinet  councils,  subjecting  to  confiscation  the  vessel? 
of  neutrals  trading  to  any  port  of  France,  with  whom  Great  Britain 
was  then  at  war.  These  orders  were  issued  in  retaliation  for  the 
French  decrees,  and  between  the  two,  neutral  commerce  suffered 
very  considerably.     See  Decrees. 

Organic,  consisting  of  various  parts  cooperating  with  each  other. 

Organic  remains,  those  animal  and  vegetable  substances  found  in  or 
upon  the  earth  in  a  mineralized  state. 

Otes,  oats. 

Oxide,  a  compound  (which  is  not  acid)  of  a  substance  with  oxygen; 
for  example,  oxide  of  iron,  or  rust  of  metals. 

Oxidize,  to  combine  oxvgen  with  a  body  without  producing  acidity. 

Oxygen,  vital  air,  a  simple  and  very  important  substance,  which  exists 
in  the  atmosphere,  and  supports  the  breathing  of  animals  and  the 
burning  of  combustibles. 

Ox7j!renous.  possessing   or  containing  oxygen. 

Oxijmuriatic  acid.     See  Chlorine. 

Packing,  any  substance  put  round  the  piston  in  a  pump  or  other 
tube,  for  the  purpose  of  making  it  water  or  air  tight. 

Pidlette,  a  pallet,  a  poor  or  hard  bed. 

Papin,  (Denys.)  an  eminent  French  natural  philosopher,  who  was 
born  in  Blois,  in  France,  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tur}-.  He  is  best  known  for  his  invention  of  the  vessel  mentioned 
on  page  ISO. 

Parenclujmntoiis,  spongy. 

Pariiih,  a  low  class  among  the  Hindoos,  or  people  of  Hindoo-stan, 
or  Hindostan.     Any  thing  bad  is  thus  termed  by  them. 

Paris,  (Matthew,)  an  eminent  English  historian,  who  wrote  a  Univer- 
sal Historv,  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the  year  of  his  death 
A.  D.  12-39. 


GLOSSARY.  417 

Panicl,  a  wanton,  immodest  girl. 

Patent  office,  a  public  repository  for  the  collection  of  newly- in  vented 
articles,  and  tin;  issue  of  patent  rights  to  inventors,  securin<r  to 
them  tlie  privileges  of  their  inventions. 

Feiison,  pease,  food  of  peas. 

Paintid,  or  pcijiiicd,  painted. 

Percy,  (Thomas,)  Bishop,  an  eminent  prelate,  who  was  born  at 
Bridgenorth,  England,  in  1728,  and  died  at  Dromore,  in  Ireland, 
of  which  he  was  Bisliop,  in  1811.  lie  was  author  of  '  Reliques 
of  Ancient  English  Poetry,'  and  many  other  valuable  works. 

Pericles,  a  celebrated  Grecian  statesman,  who  was  for  forty  years  at 
the  head  of  the  Athenian  government.  He  was  born  about  five 
hundred  years  before  Christ,  and  died  in  the  seventieth  year  of  his 
age.  During  his  life,  tiie  arts  and  sciences  were  in  their  most 
flourisliing  condition  in  Greece,  and  this  period  of  history  is  fre- 
quently termed  the  Pcriclcan  age. 

Pcrsnne,  a  man  ;  generally  a  man  of  dignity  ;  a  parson  ;  a  rector  of  a 
church.     '  Pcrsoncs  Talc,'  •  Parson's  Tale,'  one  of  Ciiaucer's  Poems. 

Peter  the  Wild  Boy,  a  youth  found  in  the  woods  in  Hanover,  in  1726, 
and  carried  to  England,  by  order  of  Queen  Caroline.  No  career 
pains  could  ever  make  him  articulate  a  word. 

Petro'cum,  a  bituminous  inflammable  fluid  mineral  substance,  re- 
sembling tar  or  pitch  in  its  properties  and  uses. 

Peynted,  painted. 

Pharmaceutical,  relating  to  the  art  of  pharmacy,  or  preparation  of 
medicines. 

Philosopher  s  stone,  see  Alchymist. 

Physico-mechnnico,  relating  to  tlie  laws  of  phj'sics  and  mechanics. 

Physics,  natural  philosopliy. 

Pierian,  belonging  to  the  Muses,  who  were  also  called  Pierides,  from 
Mount  Pierus,  in  Thessaly,  which  was  sacred  to  them. 

Pile  cng'nc,  an  engine  for  driving  piles,  which  are  large  wooden  posts 
or  timbers,  driven  into  the  mucl,  to  support  bridges  and  other  struc- 
tures. 

Pilkinirlon,  (James,)  Bishop,  a  learned  English  prelate,  who  was  born 
at  Rivington,in  Lancashire,  in  1520, and  died  in  157.").  He  was  forced 
to  flee  from  England,  at  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary,  on  account 
of  his  opposition  to  Popery  ;  but  when  Elizabeth  became  Queen, 
lie  returned,  and  was  soon  after  made  Bishop  of  Durham. 

Pinion,  a  small  wheel  which  plays  into  a  larger;  or  a  spindle,  in  the 
body  of  which  are  several  notches,  which  catch  the  teeth  of  a  wheel 
that  serves  to  turn  it  round. 

Plaster  of  Paris,  gypsum,  or  sulphate  of  lime  ;  so  called  from  the  city 
of  Paris,  in  the  vicinity  of  which  it  is  abundant. 

Platinum,  the  heaviest  metal  yet  known. 

Platonic,  relating  to  Plato,  a  celebrated  Greek  philosopher,  who  was 
born  about  B.  C.  42'.),  and  died  on  his  eighty-second  birthday.  His 
name  was  tjiven  him,  (from  a  Greek  word,  signifying  broad,)  on 
account  of  the  breadth  of  his  chest  and  forehead. 

Play  of  affinities,  tho  chemical  action  which  takes  place  when  com- 
pound subst'inces  are  mi.xed,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  new  com- 
pounds ;  in  which  case  all  the  substances  are  decomposed,  and 
unite  in  a  difierent  manner  firom  that  in  which  they  v.'erc  before 
united. 

Plorrr.  a  bird.  Ihe  lapwing. 


418  GLOSSARY. 

Polytechnic,  comprehending  many  arts. 

Pope.  (Alexander,)  a  celebrated  English  poet,  who  was  born  in  Lon- 
don, May  2:i,  ltJ8d,  and  died  May  30,  1744. ' 

Porf,  or  puure,  poor. 

Portrid,  portrayed. 

Pose,  a  cold  ;  a  stuffing  of  the  head  ;  catarrh. 

Posidonius.  a  philosopher,  who  was  born  at  Apamea,  in  Syria,  about 
B.  C.  103.  He  taught  at  Rome,  where  he  had  Cicero,  and  others 
of  the  most  distinguished  Romans  for  his  scholars. 

Potass,  an  alkali,  composed  of  potassium  and  oxygen. 

Pntassiurn,  a  light  and  very  inflammable  metal,  discovered  in  potass, 
or  potash,  by  Sir  H.  Davy. 

Protean,  changing  shape  ;  so  called  from  Proteus,  a  fabulous  sea- 
deit3-,  who  is  said  to  have  frequently  changed  his  shape,  to  elude 
those  who  wished  to  consult  him. 

PriLssan  Hue,  a  strong  and  durable  blue  color,  made  from  blood  and 
other  animal  matters. 

Pulp,  a  soft  mass. 

Pyroligneous  acid,  an  acid  obtained  from  the  smoke  of  wood. 

Pyroxilic  acid  and  spirit,  a  colorless  volatile  liquid,  which  is  formed 
when  wood  is  subjected  to  heat.  It  is  extensively  used  by  hat 
makers. 

Quartz,  an  abundant  rock,  of  which  flint,  rock  crystal,  carnelian,  jas- 
per, &c.,  are  specimens. 

Quern,  a  handmill. 

Quinine,  a  vegetable  alkali  extracted  from  Peruvian  bark.  It  is  very 
bitter,  and  is  used  as  a  medicine. 

Raleigh,  or  Ralegh,  (Sir  Walter.)  an  illustrious  English  navigator  and 
historian,  who  was  born  in  1552.  He  discovered  Virginia,  and 
rendered  other  eminent  services  to  Queen  Elizabeth;  but  in  the 
reisn  of  her  successor,  James  I.,  he  was  persecuted,  and  finally  be- 
headed, October  29,  11)18. 

The  Reformation,  that  event  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church, 
when  Protestants  separated  from  the  Church  of  Rome. 

Rercdosse,  the  raised  back  of  a  seat ;  a  projection  built  out  from  the 
wall,  against  which  to  build  a  fire. 

Residuum,  the  part  which  remains. 

The  Reroiutioii.  (AmeTican.)  the  change  in  the  constitution  of  govern 
raent,  by  which  the  United  States  became  independent. 

Rhodium,  a  brittle  and  extremely  hard  white  metal,  found  in  minutp 
quantities  in  the  ore  of  platinum. 

Rie,  rye. 

Rigg,  a  ridsre. 

Rittenhmise,  (David.)  a  distinguished  American  Philosopher,  who  was 
born  at  Germantown,  Pennsylvania,  April  8,  1732,  and  died  June 
26,  17P6.  For  his  Life,  see  the  second  volume  of  •  Lives  of  Em- 
inent Individuals,'  forming  the  fifth  volume  of  '  The  School  Li 
ERARv,'  Larger  Series. 

Robespierre,  (>raximilian  Isidore.)  a  revolutionary  monster,  who,  in 
the  French  Revolution,  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  mob,  and  for 
a  short  lime  had  the  supreme  command  in  France,  which  he  deluged 
in  blood,  but  was  himself  executed  in  July,  1794. 

Rosette,  an  ornament  in  the  shape  of  a  rose. 

Ruffle,  to  be  in  contention,  to  put  into  disorder  or  confusion. 


GLOSSARY.  419 

Huffier,  a  notorious  rogue  ;  a  disorderly  person  ;  a  disturber  of  peace 
and  good  order  ■  also,  a  ruffle. 

Saffiuiccr,  tiie  dried  flowers  ol"  a  plant  called  Carlhamus  Tinctorius. 
It  is  used  in  dyeing,  and  produces  a  briglit  red  color. 

Sale,  say. 

St.  .iugustiiu,  or  St.  Austin,  the  first  Roman  Catholic  Archbisliop  of 
Canterbury.  lie  was  originally  a  monk,  in  a  convent  at  Rome, 
and  was  sent  to  Britain  by  Pope  Gregory-,  Bishop  of  Rome,  A.  D. 
59(),  witli  forty  other  monks,  to  endeavor  to  bring  the  Bishops  and 
Clergy  of  the  British  Church  into  subjection  to  the  Church  of 
Rome. 

St.  Martin,  a  celebrated  bishop,  the  first  of  France.  He  flourished  in 
the  fourth  century,  and  died  November  11,  A.  D.  400. 

Sal,  salt.     Sul  (nninoniuc,  a  salt  containing  ammonia. 

Salt,  a  vessel  to  contain  salt,  a  saltcellar. 

Sainblablc,  or  scmblable,  like,  resembling. 

Savan,  the  French  term  for  a  scientific  man. 

Scaligcr,  (Julius  Ccesar,)  usually  called  the  elder,  a  famous  Italian 
physician  and  philosopher  and  eminent  Latin  poet  and  critic,  who 
was  born  A.  D.  14d4,  and  died  in  looS.  His  son,  Joseph  Justus 
Scaliger,  (called  the  younger,)  was  also  a  great  critic  and  learned 
scholar,  being  master  of  thirteen  languages. 

Sclayne,  slain. 

Scutch,  to  whip,  to  beat. 

Seaborne,  borne  over  the  sea,  brought  by  sea. 

Scldrn,  seldom. 

Semi,  half.     Semi  cylinder,  a  half  cylinder. 

Scftc.  tf,  (Marcus  AiincBUs,)  a  learned  rhetorician  and  philosopher  of 
ancient  Rome,  who  flourished  during  the  first  half  century  after 
Christ.  He  was  the  tutor  of  the  youthful  Emperor  Nero.  Being 
suspected,  by  that  Prince,  of  being  connected  with  a  conspiracy 
against  his  life,  he  was  put  to  deatli,  A.  D.  G(i. 

Serinirapntam,  (or  Patana,)  a  fortified  city  of  Hindostan.  It  was 
formerly  one  of  the  richest  cities  of  the  East,  and  supposed  to  have 
contained,  in  llS'-i  to  17!!:?,  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  inhab- 
itants.    There  are  extensive  quarries  of  granite  in  its  vicinity. 

S/takspeare,  (William,)  the  most  celebrated  English  poet  and  writer, 
who  was  born  A.  D.  1304,  and  died  in  1016. 

Share,  the  blade  of  a  plough,  or  that  part  which  cuts  the  ground. 

Shell-lac,  see  Lac. 

Sherman,  liocrer,  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  American 
Independence,  who  was  born  at  Newton,  Massachusetts,  April  19, 
1721,  and  died  at  New  Haven,  July  20,  1793.  He  began  life  as  a 
shoemaker,  and  rose  to  many  high  and  responsible  offices. 

Short  dung,  rolti-d  dung  for  manure. 

Sidnrtj,  (Sir  Philip.)  one  of  the  most  accomplished  statesmen  of  the 
reign  ot  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  author  of 'Tlie  Arcadia,'  and  several 
other  pr)enis.  He  was  born  A.  D.  1554,  and  died  from  wounds  re- 
ceived in  battle,  in  1566. 

Silica,  or  sile.x,  the  earth  of  which  quartz,  flint,  «&c.,  are  composed. 

Silidoas,  containing  silex. 

Sinclair,  (Sir  J<ilin,)  a  distinguished  statesman  and  agriculturist, 
whn  was  born  in  Caithness,  Scotland,  A.  D.  1754.  He  was  for 
uia»y  years  a  member  of  Parlidment,  and  author  of  manv  valuable 


420  GLOSSARY. 

Sisyphus,  a  fabulous  prince  of  antiquity,  said  to  have  been  condemned 
to  roll  up  a  hill  a  larnre  stone,  which  no  sooner  reached  the  summit, 
than  it  fell  back  into  the  plain,  thus  rendering-  his  punishiiient  eter- 
nal. The  epithet  is  often  applied  to  any  very  ditficult  and  appa- 
rently interminable  labor. 

Sith,  since. 

Smuli,  a  powdered  glass,  of  a  blue  color. 

Smeuton,  (John.)  an  eminent  Enfflish  mechanic  and  engineer,  ■who 
was  born  in  Yorkshire,  May  2?',  1724,  and  died  September  8,  1792. 
He  was  the  builder  of  the  Eddystone  lighthouse. 

Smith,  (Adam,)  a  celebrated  Scottish  writer  on  moral  and  political 
oconomy,  who  was  born  June  5.  1723,  and  died  in  17!  0. 

Smithjidd,  a  celebrated  Square  in  London,  in  which  is  held  the  great- 
est cattle  market  in  England.  It  is  famous  in  history,  as  the  place 
where  the  martyrs  were  burnt,  in  the  religious  persecutions  of  the 
sixteenth  centur\-. 

Sinoke-jacU,  an  instrument  to  turn  a  spit,  and  which  is  set  in  motion 
by  the  smoke  or  rarefied -air  ascending  the  chimney. 

Soda,  or  JVatrov,  an  alkali  obtained  from  \he  ashes  of  marine 
plants. 

Spenser,  (Edmund,)  a  celebrated  English  poet,  who  was  born  in  Lon- 
don, about  A.  D.  1553,  and  died  at  the  age  of  forty-six.  His  great 
poem,  called  the  '  Faerie  Queene,'  is  full  of  beautiful  sentiment  and 
imagery,  and  exquisite  descriptions  of  character. 

Sphenoid,  wedge  shaped;  the  name  of  one  of  the  bones  of  the  skull. 
See  cut  on  page  130. 

Spnke-shaxe,  a  shave  or  knife  used  by  wheelwrights  and  carpenters,  for 
the  purpose  of  shaving  smooth  the  spokes  of  wheels,  &c. 

S7t/>p//no-,  a  mode  of  engraving  by  making  dots  or  punctures  in  the 
copper,  instead  of  cutting  lines. 

Stock,  cattle,  and  other  animals  on  a  farm. 

Slrihfs,  combinations  of  workmen  to  abstain  from  work  till  they  have 
exacted  higher  wages,  or  etfected  some  other  object. 

Stultifieil,  made  foolish,  deprived  of  understanding. 

Sub,  a  Latin  prefix,  signifying  under  or  below. 

Sub-soil,  the  soil  lying  directly  under  the  vegetable  soil  which  is  on 
the  surface. 

Sitlphfi/ts,  Sufp/iats,  Sulphites,  salts  formed  by  the  combination  of  any 
base  with  sulphuric  acid.  See  pp.43,  44,  ?iote.  Sulphiite  of  copper, 
blue  vitriol ;  blue  stone.  Sulphate  of  iroji,  copperas  ;  green  vitriol. 
Sulphate  of  lime,  gypsum,  or  plaster  of  Paris.  Sulphate  of  magnesia, 
Epsom  salts.  Sulphate  of  potash,  a  chemical  salt,  composed  of  sul- 
phuric acid  and  potash.  Sulphate  of  suda,  Glauber's  salts.  Sul- 
phate of  zinc,  white  vitriol. 

Sulphurcts,  combinations  of  alkaline  earths  or  metals  with  sulphur. 

Sulphuric  acid,  oil  of  vitriol  ;  vitriolic  acid. 

Sulphuret  if  potash,  sulphur  and  potash  fused  together. 

Sulphurous  acid  gas,  a  gas  formed  by  burning  sulphur  in  oxygen  or 
common  air,  under  a  bell  glass. 

Swcdiek  turnip,  or  ruta  baga,  a  variety  of  turnip,  large,  and  of  a  yel- 
lowish color. 

Siciche,  or  Swilkc,  such. 

Tauihoured ,  ornamented  with  a  kind  of  needle-work. 

Tannin,  a  substance  found  in  the  bark  of  the  oak,  and  almost  all 
other  trees.     It  is  used  for  tanning  hides,  and  as  a  dye-stuiF, 


GLOSSARY.  421 

Tarquins,  a  family  who  reigned  in  Rome,  between  five  and  six  liun- 
dred  years  before  Clirist. 

Themistucles,  a  celebrated  Athenian  general,  who  was  born  about 
C.  C.  ol-l,  and  died  about  B.  C.  44!).  He  was  several  years  at  the 
head  ot'the  Athenian  republic,  and  contributed  much  to  its  security 
and  the  improvement  of  the  capital.  Being  once  laughed  at,  for 
his  ignorance  of  some  genteel  accomplishments,  he  replied,  '•  It  is 
true,  I  never  learned  how  to  tune  a  harp,  or  play  upon  a  lute  ;  but 
I  know  how  to  raise  a  small  and  inconsiderable  city  to  glory  and 
greatness." 

Tlie.ophrnslus,  a  Greek  philosopher  and  moral  writer,  who  was  born  at 
Lesbos,  B.  C.  371,  and  died  about  B.  C.  2d6.  He  wrote  numerous 
works,  but  few  of  which  remain. 

Togvlc-jiiint,  an  elbow  or  knee-joint,  consisting  of  two  bars,  so  con 
nected  by  a  joint,  that  they  may  be  brouglit  into  a  straight  line. 

Tunics,  medicines  to  strengthen  the  nerves,  and  give  vigor  to  the 
system. 

Topiciil,  limited,  local. 

Traction,  the  act  of  drawing  a  load  ;  drauglit. 

Treasury  Department,  the  Department  having  the  care  of  the  revenues 
of  a  country. 

Trccnc,  (from  tree,)  wooden,  made  of  wood. 

Trigonometrical,  pertaining  to  trigonometry,  or  the  art  of  measuring 
triangles. 

Tubal  Cain,  see  Genesis,  iv.  22. 

Tall,  Jethro,  an  English  gentleman,  inventor  of  the  drill-plough,  and 
the  first  writer  who  ever  successfully  attempted  to  reduce  agricul- 
ture to  certain  and  uniform  principles.  He  was  born  about  A.  D. 
1G80,  and  died  January  ;3,  1740. 

Tyfcr,  fi  tiler,  one  who  lays  tiles  on  houses. 

Ullon,  (Dun  Antonio  dc.)  an  able  Spanish  naval  ofiicer  and  mathema- 
tician, who  was  born  at  Seville,  in  1716,  and  died  in  17'J5.  He  re- 
sidi'd  ten  years  in  South  America,  was  Governor  of  Louisiana,  and 
published  an  account  of  his  travels. 

Uhnic  arid,  or  liumic  acid,  that  peculiar  substance  or  property  in  vege- 
table soil,  which  has  been  generally  supposed  to  constitute  the  food 
or  nourishment  of  j)lants.  From  recent  researches  bf  an  agricul- 
tural chemist,  (Professor  Liebig,  of  Germany,)  it  would  appear, 
that,  instead  of  being  directly  the  food  of  plants,  it  is  the  source  of 
the  carbonic  acid  which  serves  to  nourish  them. 

Ultfssrs,  a  celebrated  ancient  Grecian  prince,  of  great  valor,  pru- 
dence, and  sagacity.  He  was  King  of  tiie  Islands  of  Ithaca  and 
Dulichiuni.  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  and  flourished  about  twelve  hundred 
years  bef  >re  Christ. 

The  United  Kingdom,  Great  Britain,  composed  of  England,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland. 

Vrc,  (Andrew,)  a  distinguished  English  physician  and  writer.  Pro- 
lessor  of  Practical  Science,  author  of  A  Dictionary  of  Arts,  Manu- 
factures, and  Mines,'  and  several  other  works. 

Utopian,  imaginary  ;  from  a  work  by  Sir  Thomas  More,  a  celebrated 
English  judge  and  chancellor,  in  which  he  describes  the  govern- 
ment, laws,  «tc.,  of  an  imaginary  island,  which  he  calls  Utopia, 
(fiom  the  Greek  'I'lVTonog,  outopos,  no  place,)  giving  political  views 
mith  in  advance  of  those  of  his  age,  and  satirizing  many  of  the 
"'cea  and  absurdities  of  Europe. 


422  GLOSSARY. 

Vetches,  a  family  of  plants  similar  to  the  pea. 

Viaduct,  a  passage  ;  a  piece  of  masonry  built  across  a  stream  or  valley 
to  support  a  road  or  railway. 

Vice  versa,  the  side  being  changed,  or  the  question  reversed. 

Volta,  (Alexander,)  a  celebrated  experimental  philosopher,  who  was 
born  at  Como,  in  Italy,  in  1745,  and  died  Marcii  G,  1826.  He  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  progress  of  science,  and  paid  great  attention 
to  electricity.  To  his  discovery  or  invention  of  the  Voltaic  pile 
or  butter^/,  we  are  indebted  for  many  important  philosopiiical  and 
chemical  discoveries. 

Waliskmen,  Welchmen. 

Watt,  Jinncs,  a  man  remarkable  for  his  acquisitions  in  science  and 
natural  philosophy,  and  for  his  improvements  in  the  steam-engine. 
He  was  born  in  17;5G,  and  died  in  1819.  For  a  biographical  sketch 
of  his  life,  see  '  Pursuit  of  Knowledge  under  Ditficulties,'  vol.  ii., 
forming  volume  xv.  of'  The  School  Library.' 

Wedgwood,  (Josiah,)  an  eminent  improver  of  tiie  manufacture  of  pot- 
tery, who  was  born  in  July,  17:30,  and  died  January  3,  1795.  He 
invented  the  ware  which  is  known  by  his  name,  and  rendered 
many  other  services  to  science. 

U'cld,  wold,  yellow  weed,  or  dyer's  weed,  a  plant  cultivated  for  its 
use  in  dyeing  yellow. 

Whitney,  Eli,  an  able  and  ingenious  mechanician,  who  was  born  at 
Westborough,  Massachusetts,  in  1765,  and  died  in  1825.  He  was 
buried  at  New  Haven,  and  over  his  remains  a  beautiful  monument 
has  been  erected  to  his  memory.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the  cot- 
ton-gin, a  machine  for  separating  the  seeds  from  the  downy  fibre  of 
the  cotton,  an  operation  previously  performed  slowly,  and  with 
great  labor,  by  hand.  For  a  description  of  this  machine,  see  Bige- 
low's  '  Useful  Arts,'  vol.  i.  page  111,  being  the  eleventh  volume  of 
'The  School  Librarv,'  Larger  Series.  His  Life  will  appear  in 
a  subsequent  volume  of  this  series. 

Whittemore,  (.'\mos,)  the  inventor  of  a  machine  for  sticking  cards, 
who  died  at  West  Cambridge,  in  1828,  aged  sixty-nine. 

Whoods,  hoods,  coverings  for  the  head. 

Wicker,  work  made  of  twigs  or  small  sticks. 

Willium  in^.  Prince  of  Orange,  born  A.  D.  1650,  and  became  King  of 
Enirland,  in  consequence  of  the  deposition  of  James  II.,  in  liB89. 
He^died  March  8,  1702. 

William  IV.,  King  of  Groat  Britain,  was  born  August  21,  1765,  and 
became  Kino-  on  the  death  of  his  brother,  George  IV.,  June  26, 
1830.     He  died  June  20,  1837. 

Wipers,  cams  of  a  particular  construction,  intended  to  produce  two 
or  more  alternate  movements  for  each  revolution  of  the  wheel. 

Withs,  senseless,  inconsiderate,  wanting  understanding. 

H'olliiston,  (William  Hyde,)  a  celebrated  chemist  and  experimental 
philosopher,  who  was  born  A.  D.  17(56,  and  died  December  22,  1828. 
He  became  one  of  the  most  eminent  chemists  and  experimentalists 
of  modern  times;  and  invented  the  camera  lucida,  and  several  other 
valuable  instruments. 

Yi.ed,  went,  did  go. 

Young,  (Arthur.)  a  celebrated  English  agricultural  writer,  who  was 
born  September  7,  1741,  and  <^ied  February  20,  1820. 


INDEX. 


Abrasion  of  surfaces,  297.  :' 

Abutments,  of  the  arch,  128.  | 

Acceleration,  uniform,  of  motion, 

57.     Laws  regulating,  58,  59. 
Accident,     sometimes     originates 

important  inventions,  33. 
Acetate  of  zinc,  43.  ' 

Acetous  fermentation,  174. 
Achromatic  glass,  206.    Compar-  || 

ed  with  human  eye,  206,  207.    i 
Acid,  humic,  or  ulinic,  109.  \[ 

Acid,  sulphuric,  process  of  manu-  ' 

facturing,  40. 
Action    and    reaction,    principle  |l 

of,  54,  104.     Enables  the  bird  | 

to  fly,  54. 
Aeriform  bodies,  gravity  of,  acts 

as  a  moving  force,  68. 
Affinities,    chemical,    applied    to 

the  art  of  dveing,  162. 
Affinity,   definition    of,    40,    103.  . 

Distinguished    from     cohesion,  !' 

40.  Operation  of,  seen  in  so-  . 
lutions,  41,  103.  Action  of,  op-  i 
posed  by  cohesion,  41.  Chem-  j| 
ical    combinations    caused    by, 

41.  Ditferent  degrees  of,  42, 
43.  Application  of  the  laws 
of,  to  the   useful  arts,  47,  104. 

Affinity,  chemical,  definition  of, 
40.  Examples  of,  40.  Laws 
of,  41-47.  The  foundation  of 
all  chemical  science,  47. 

Affinity,  elective,  43,  103.  Dou- 
ble, example  of,  43.  Use  of, 
in  the  arts,  44.  Defined,  43, 
103.     Single,  43,  103. 

Agents,  employed  in  the  arts,  40. 

Agents,  chemical,  obey  the  Ktws 


of  chemical  affinity,  40  ;  action 
of,  47,  104. 

Agents,  mechanical,  mode  of  ac- 
tion, 47,  104.  Name  of,  47. 
Enunieration  of,  48, 104.  Grav- 
ity of  air,  68. 

Agriculture,  importance  of,  108. 
.-Vttention  to,  in  different  coun- 
tries, 108.  Principles  of,  de- 
rived from  chemistry  and  me- 
chanics, 108.  Application  of 
other  sciences  to,  108.  Errors 
in,  avoided  by  scientific  infor- 
mation, 117.  Chinese,  118. 
.Advantage  of  machines  in,  118, 
119.  Scientific  knowledge  im- 
portant to  the  farmer,  116—121. 
Improvers  of  British,  117.  Ig- 
norance of,  cause  of  famines, 
120  ;  of  miserable  condition  of 
peasantry  in  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal, 120.  Progress  of,  in  Eng- 
land, 121.  Relative  importance 
of,  compared  with  commerce 
and  manufactures,  262.  Fur- 
nishes employment  to  a  part 
only  of  population,  262.  .Arts 
and  manufactures  not  hostile  to 
the  interests  of,  286.  Slow  ad- 
vance of,  in  England,  325.  Re- 
cent improvements  in,  328. 
Webster's  account  of  its  present 
state  in  England,  329.  Appli- 
cation of  chemistry  to,  331. 
Rotation  of  crops,  332.  Tile 
draining,  337.  Irrigation,  338, 
339.  American  agriculture, 
341  ;  inferiority  of,  to  English 
and  Scotch,  341  ;  improvement 
in,  342. 


•f. 


424 


INDEX. 


Agriculture,    chemical,    lOS-118.  ' 
Advantages  of,  116;   illustrat- 
ed by  Lavoisier,  117,  118. 

Agriculture,       mechanical,      im- 
provement   in,    119.      Among  I 
the  Greeks,  119.  H 

Air,   weight    of,  6S  ;   application  ■[ 
of,  as  a  moving  force,  68  ;   in  ' 
the  pump,  69  ;  barometer,  70  ; 
windmills,    70,    71  ;    flight    of  I 
birds,    71.     Elasticity    of,    71    ; 
Action  in  the   fire-engine,  71,  ■ 
72,   105  ;    in   the   air-gun,  72, 
105  ;    in  bleaching,   159.     As- 
sists decomposition,  186. 

Air-gun,  72. 

Alchvmists,  ignorant  of  the  laws 
of 'Nature, ^31. 

Alcohol,  combines  with  water,  40; 
greater  affinity  for  it  than  for 
camphor,  43.  Dangers  and 
evils  from  use  of,  177-179. 

Alexander  Selkirk,  10. 

Alloys,  use  of,  194.  Most  com- 
mon, 194. 

Alsace,  dye-works  in,  164. 

Amalgamation  of  ores,  193. 

.\merica,   first   stagecoach  estab-  ; 
lished  in,  392.  ; 

Americans,  activity  of,  379,  380.  ;i 

Ancients,  ignorant  of  the  laws  of 
Nature,  248. 

Animal  force,  54—56. 

Animal  manures,  113. 

Animals,  strength  of,  constitutes 
the  animate  forces,  54  ;  causes 
influencing,  54  ;  rules  for  em- 
ploying, 55.  Relative  value 
of,  55. 

Animate  forces,  54—56. 

Annealing,  glass,  204. 

Antiseptics,  properties  of,  1S7. 
Examples  of,  187. 

Appert's  process  for  preserving 
fruit,  186.  i 

Aqueducts,  ancient,  65.  j' 

.Arch,  unknown  to  the  earlier  ar- 
chitecture, 128.  First  found 
among  the  Ronans,  128.  An 
Etruscan  invention,  128.  Prin- 
ciple of,  128.    Strength  of,  and  '. 


resistance  to  pressure,  129. 
Parts  of  human  frame  on  prin- 
ciple of,  129-131  ;  the  foot, 
129;  the  skull,  129-131. 

Archimedean  screw.  Smith's, 
246. 

Archimedes,  invented  method  of 
ascertaining  specific  gravities, 
67.      Boast  of,  93. 

Architect,  knowledge  of  geome- 
try needed  by,  123  ;  of  chem- 
istry, 125.  Seeks  permanence 
in  his  works,  125.  Should  un- 
derstand the  principles  of  me- 
chanical philosophy,  127. 

Architecture,  gives  evidence  of 
the  progressive  powers  of  the 
mind,  121.  Of  insects  and 
quadrupeds,  121.  Of  Nature, 
122,129-131,132-134;  foun- 
ded on  principles  slowly  discov- 
ered and  employed  by  man, 
122,  128.  Applications  of  ge- 
ometry to,  122-124  ;  of  chem- 
istry, 124-126.  Dependence 
of,  on  mechanical  philosophy, 
127.  Gravitation  a  principle  of, 
127.  The  arch,  128-131.  In 
Egvpt,  128,  134,  135.  The  col- 
uu.'n,  131.  Of  trees,  134.  Ma- 
chines employed  in,  134.  In 
>.Iexico  and  Peru,  134.  Im- 
provement in,  the  result  cf  im- 
provement in  mechanical  sci- 
ence, 135,  136.  Of  dwelling- 
houses  much  improved,  136, 
137. 

Arkwright,  Richard,  his  obliga- 
tions to  science,  33,  34.  His 
water-spinning-franie,143,144; 
his  invention  of,  disputed,  143  ; 
improved  that  of  Wyatt,  143. 

Arn.strong,  General,  on  manures, 
114. 

Arnott,  Dr.,  on  the  relative  resist- 
ance of  friction,  in  sliding  and 
rolling  motion,  234. 

Art,  signification  of  the  term,  11. 
Its  dependence  on  science,  21; 
connexion  with  science,  34,  35. 
Leading  feature  of  modem  im- 


IXDEX. 


425 


provements  in,  248.  Compar- 
ison of  ancient  and  modern, 
248,  249.  Modern,  the  ofT- 
spring  of  science,  249. 

Artichoke,  introduction  of,  in 
Enghuui,  345. 

Artisan,  advantages  of  scientific 
information  to,  22-34,  37  ;  of 
moral  and  iutellectual  cultiva- 
tion, 35,  36. 

Arts,  distinction  between  the  fine 
and  useful,  11.  Study  of,  in- 
teresting and  important  to  all, 
13  ;  its  great  advantage  in  the 
pursuit  of  almost  every  science 
and  branch  of  knowledge,  14  ; 
of  mathematical  science,  14, 
15  ;  of  political  economy,  16  ; 
of  history,  poetry,  &c.,  16,  17. 
Spurious  quality  of  substances 
employed  in,  27.  Rapid  prog- 
ress of,  and  constant  improve- 
ments ill,  29,  35.  Qualifica- 
tions necessary  to  an  inventor 
in,  31,  32.  Improvements  in, 
preceded  by  discoveries  in  sci- 
ence, 34,  35.  Evils  arising 
from  neglecting  the  application 
of  science  to,  36.  Dependent 
on  science,  36,  37.  Substitute 
intelligence  in  place  of  brute 
force,  39.  Agents  employed 
in,  40.  Importance  in,  of  chem- 
ical combinations,  41.  Ma- 
chinery employed  in,  87-100, 
105.  Enumeration  of  several 
of,  107.  Agriculture  one  of  the 
first  of,  108.  Of  working  met- 
als, 189-199  ;  interest  and  im- 
portance of,  189  ;  not  unknown 
in  early  ages,  190  ;  enumera- 
tion of,'l90  ;  mining,  191,  192; 
dressing  ores,  192  ;  reducing, 
193  ;  working  np  metals,  194- 
199.  Of  glass-making,  199- 
207.  Of  pottery  and  porcelain, 
207-213.  Of' copying,  213- 
230  ;  casting,  214  ;  enu'raving,  I 
215,  216  ;  punching,  218  :j 
drawing,  219,  220;  stamping,' 
221;  printing,  221-230.  On  | 
36* 


the  progress  of  the,  246-260 
On  the  connexion  between  the 
useful  and  fine,  303-306  ;  in 
I>ench  manufactures,  304-306. 
School  of,  at  Lyons,  304-306. 
Physical  comfort  of  the  people 
increased  by  the  progress  of, 
344-373.  Schools  of,  import- 
ance of,  399.     At  Paris,    &c., 

399.  Mode  of  instruction    in, 

400.  Troy  Institute,  401. 
Arts,  chemical,  294  ;  those  em- 
ployed on  metallic  substances, 
301  ;  earthy.  302  ;  combusti- 
ble, 302  ;  siiline,  302;  on  veg- 
etable, 302  ;    animal,  303. 

Arts,    domestic,    great    improve 
nients  in,  187,  188. 

Arts,  fine,  11,  303-306. 

Arts,  liberal,  their  object,  19. 
Enumeration  of,  19,  20.  Use- 
ful, in  the  highest  sense,  20. 
Founded  on  science,  20. 

Arts,  mechanic,  susceptible  of 
unlimited  improvement,  101. 

Arts,  mechanical,  classification 
of,  295-300. 

Arts,  useful,  connexion  between 
them,  and  the  physical  sciences, 
11,  12,  IS  ;  importance  of  this 
connexion,  12  ;  evils  arising 
from  a  disregard  of  it,  12.  Ef- 
fects produced  in,  by  the  pow- 
ers of  Nature,  39.  Importance 
of  double  elective  allinity  in, 
44.  Application  of  iaws  of  af- 
finity to,  47.  Efl^ects  of  the 
application  of  science  to,  249- 
258.  Increased  respectabiiityof, 
251.  Ignorance  of,  among  the 
Greeks,  256.  Improvements 
in,  tend  to  economy,  256.  Fa- 
cilities for  cultivating  and  im- 
proving in  .America,  259,  260. 
Influence  of,  on  national  wel- 
fare, 260,  279.  Aflbrd  employ- 
ment, 262.  Stimulate  mind, 
265.  Motives  for  cultivation 
of.  in  United  States,  26.S-27S  ; 
contributes  to  national  inde- 
pendencp,  274.     An  index    of 


426 


INDEX. 


civilization,  279.  Cultivation 
of,  in  England.  280-282.  Ob- 
jeciions  against  the  encourage- 
ment of,  in  the  United  States, 
considered,  2S.3-290.  Ert'ect 
of  the  cultivation  of,  on  mor- 
als, 289.  By  Avhat  means  their 
cultivation  best  promoted,  290. 

,    Classification  of,  294. 

Asparagus,  first  in  England,  345. 

Assaying,  ores,  193. 

Atmosphere,  pressure  of,  68.  Of- 
fice of,  to  plants,  109. 

B. 

Babbage,  Mr.,  quoted,  97,  9S, 
219,^220,  227. 

Bacon,  Lord,  anecdote  of,  IS. 
On  the  twofold  office  of  man, 
39.  His  Novum  Organum,  251. 
On  application  of  science  to 
art,  252.  Object  of  his  philos- 
ophy, 395—397. 

Baines,  Mr.,  on  the  spinning- 
frame,  143.  Referred  to,  149. 
On  cotton  manufacture,  151. 
Cheapness  of  cotton  goods,  350. 

Baker's  Chronicle,  370. 

Bakeweli,  on  husbandry,  327. 

Baking,  ISl. 

Barometer,  principle  and  use,  70. 

Beckman,  on  introduction  of  veg- 
etables in  England,  345. 

Beer,  statistics  of,  121. 

Bees,  cells  of,  124. 

Bell,  Sir  Charles,  remarks  of,  on 
structure  of  human  bodv,  122. 
Referred  to,  133. 

Bellows,  hydrostatic,  63. 

Bergmann,  first  referred  dyeing 
to  chemical  affinities,  162. 

Biddle,  Nicholas,  on  manufacture 
of  American  iron,  376—382. 

Bigelow,  Technology,  3,  201,208. 

Bird,  support  of,  in  the  air,  54. 

Birds,  feathers  and  wings  of,  71. 

Black,  Dr.,  indebtedness  of  Wall 
to,  33. 

Blacksmith,  the  literary,  310. 

Bleaching,  of  paper-rags,  154, 
155,    161       In    general,    158- 


i[  161.  By  air  and  light,  159 
I  By  chlorine,  159.  By  sulphur- 
i  ous  acid  gas,  160.  Of  wax, 
'!       160.     Theory  of,  160. 

Blvthe,     '  Improver     Improved,' 
^       327. 

ji  Bodv,    human,    wonderful    struc- 
i       ture  of,  122,  129-131,  132. 
Boiling,  food,   179,  180. 
Bologna  phials,  204. 
1   Bone-dust,  as  a  manure,  113,  328. 
']  Bone-mills,    113. 
I|  Bones  of  the  foot,    129.     Of  the 
'       skull,  130  ;  parietal,  130;  tem- 
poral, 130;  sphenoid,  131.     In 
1       form  of  hollow  cylinder,  132. 
I  Books,  facilities  for  obtaining,  315. 
Boring,  296. 
Bowing,  of  furs,  139. 
Bramah,    livdrostatic-press,     64, 

105. 
Brantome's  Chronicles,  363. 
Bread,    vinous    fermentation    in, 

172.     ^lode  of  raising,  173. 
Brewster,  Dr.,  on  the  eye,   207. 
Brewster,    Ciilbert,    indebted     to 
science,  322.      Inventor  of  the 
eclipse  speeder,  322. 
Bricks,  208. 

British  orders,  injurious  to  Amer- 
ican commerce,   276. 
Bronze,  194 

Brougham,  Lord,  on  importance 
of  science  in  cookery,  27.  Dis- 
course on  advantages  of  sci- 
ence, 30,  34.  On  American 
manufactures,  277.  His  econ- 
omy of  time,  313. 
Bruce,      John,     biscuit-machine, 

172. 
Brunell, origin  of  invention  of,102 
Brussels  carpets,  139. 
Buel,  Judge,  on  root  culture,  115 

'  Farmer's  Companion,'  343. 
Buhl-work,  how  done,  218. 
Bull's  eye,  203. 
Busts,  plaster,  214. 
Butter,  making  of,  183,  184. 


Calico-machine,  five-colored,  40 


INDEX. 


427 


Calico  printing,  art  of,  164.  Prin- 
ciples studied  by  Frencli  nian- 
ufacturers,  lt>4.  Process,  1()5. 
Four  niodt.'s,  1G6  ;  by  liaiid, 
16(i  ;   by    the    Perrotine,    166  ; 

•    by  the  cylinder,  167. 

Calomel,  liow  obtained,  44. 

Catiieron,  ^^ir  Kvan,  252,  253. 

Canipan,  Madame,  her  economy 
of  time,  312. 

Canal,  advantages  of,  compared 
with  rail-road,  237,  238. 

Carding,  process  of,  1 48. 

Carpets,  Brussels  and  Turkey, 
iiow  made,  139.  Kiddermin- 
ster, 140. 

Carriages,  wheel,  as  a  means  of 
transportation,  232-235.  Use 
of  springs  in,  235. 

Case,  in  printing-olHce,  222. 

Cask,  pressure  of  water  in,  63, 
64. 

Cast-iron,  195. 

Casts,  copies  multiplied  by,  213, 
214. 

Cauliflower,  first  in  England,  345. 

Celery,  brought  into  England,  345. 

Cementation,  of  iron,  195. 

Cements,  composition  and  action 
of,  126. 

Centre  of  gravity,  52,  53. 

Centrifugal  force,  a  law  of  mo- 
tion, 50.  Examples  of,  50. 
Valuable  application  of,  51. 

Chaptal,  on  fallowing,  HI,  112. 

Ciiase,  printer's,  224. 

Chaucer,  on  pride  of  the  table, 
371.     On  the  clergy,  371. 

Cheese,  how  made,  182.  Great 
care  requisite  to  make  good, 
182  ;  Sir  John  Sinclair's  re- 
marks on,  182. 

Chemical  afiinities,  see  Affinity. 

Chemical  agents,  40-47.  See 
.Agents. 

Chemical  agriculture,  108-118. 

Chemical   arts,  294,  301-303. 

Chemical  manufacture,  see  Alan- 
ufacture. 

Chemical  manufactures,  40,  301. 

Chemical  philosophy,  injportance 


of,  to  cookery,  27  ;  to  agricul- 
ture, 109. 

Chemical  processes  in  manufac- 
turing cloth,  158-165  ;  in 
bleaching,  158—161  ;  in  dye- 
ing, 161,164.  In  the  domestic 
arts,  171-187. 

Chemical  science,  see  Science. 

Chemist,  farmer  a,  116. 

Chemistry,  importance  of,  to  ag- 
riculture, 109,  116-118.  De- 
pendence of  architecture  on, 
122.  Applications  of,  to  ar- 
chitecture, 124-126  ;  in  coun- 
teracting decay,  125  ;  in  ce- 
ments, 126.  Application  of,  to 
dyeing,  162-164. 

Chloride  of  lime,  in  bleaching 
rags,  155  ;  cotton,  &c.,  160. 

Chlorine,  used  as  a  bleaching 
agent,  159  ;  its  action,  160. 

Chlorine  gas,  in  bleaching,  154. 

Chronicle,  Hollingshcd's,  on  prog- 
ress of  luxurv  in  England,  137, 
255,  347. 

Churning,  attended  by  chemical 
changes,  183.  A  delicate  proc- 
ess, 184. 

Civilization,  the  work  of  industry, 
247.  State  of  the  useful  arts, 
an  index  of,  279.  High  state 
of,  in  England,  281,  282. 

Clay,  contracts  by  heat,  77.  As 
a  manure,  112.  Various  kinds 
used  in  pottery  and  porcelain, 
208.  Process  of  preparing,  208, 
209  ;  shaping,  209,  210  ;  burn- 
ing, 210  ;  glazing,  211. 

Cloth,  manufacture  of,  138.  Prep- 
aration of  the  fibres,  138. 
Weaving, various  kinds  of,  139. 
Dressing,  l-io,  141.  .Alachinery 
used  in  manufacturing,  141— 
145.  Manufacture  of  cotton, 
145—152.  Chemical  processes 
employed  in  manufacturing, 
158.  Comfort  of  mankind  in- 
creased by  improvements  in 
manufacture  of,  \iiS,  169. 

Clowes,  Messrs.,  rapid  operation 
of  their  power-presses,  225. 


423 


INDEX. 


Coal,  value  of,  376.  Abundance 
of,  in  America,  377,  378. 

Coflee,  introduction  of,  in  Eng- 
land, 374. 

Cohesion,  distinction  between  it, 
and  affinity,  40,  41.  Lessened 
by  heat,  &c.,  41.  IMechanical 
works  founded  on,  299. 

Coke,  Mr.,  his  land  cultivation, 
334. 

Colchester,  condition  of,  in  the 
fourteenth  and  nineteenth  cen- 
turies compared,  360-367. 

Colquhoun,  on  comparative  moral- 
ity of  manufacturing  and  agri- 
cultural classes,  289. 

Column,  principles  regulating  the 
use  of,  131.  Advantages  of  the 
hollow  cylinder  form,  131,  132. 

Commerce,  effect  of,  on  national 
progress,  230.  Fluctuations  of, 
272.  Independence  of  foreign, 
274.  Where  most  flourishing, 
285,  286. 

Comminuting  soils,  298. 

Commons,  or  middling  class,  ori- 
gin of,  308. 

Comparative  expense  of  manufac- 
ture of  cotton  in  United  States 
and  Great  Britian,  401. 

Composition,  chemical,  results 
from  active  affinity,  44.  Ex- 
amples of,  44. 

Compositor,  work  of  a,  223. 

Compound  motion,  instances  and 
laws  of,  51,  52. 

Compounds,  chemical,  laws  of, 
and  instances  of,  42-47.  Re- 
markable characteristic  of,  45. 

Conveyance,  water,  relative  ad- 
vantage of,  and  land-convey- 
ance, 237,  23S.  Steam-boat, 
243,  244. 

Cookery,  art  of,  connected  with 
the  principles  of  chemical  phi- 
losophy, 27. 

Copper-plates,  225.  Copied  by 
means  of  galvanic  electricity, 
387,  388. 

Copying,  art  of,  213-230  ;  bv 
casting,  213,  214.     Chief  labor 


of,  in  forming  the  pattern,  217. 
By  punching,  218  ;  drawing, 
219  ;  wire-drawing,  219  ;  lube- 
drawing,  219;  iron-rolling,  220; 
stamping,  221  ;  printing,  221- 
226  ;  transfer,  228,  229.  In«. 
fluence  of,  on  welfare  of  hu- 
man race,  227. 

Cornwall,  mines  of  described, 
191,  192. 

Corrosive  sublimate,  a  product  of 
mercury  and  chlorine,  45. 

Cotton,  manufacture  of,  145—152  ; 
ginning,  145.  American  sea- 
island,  and  upland,  145,  146. 
Increased  cultivation  of,  since 
the  invention  of  Whitney's  cot- 
ton-gin, 146.  Statistics  of, 
146,  169.  Processes  prepara- 
tory to  carding,  147.  Carding, 
148.       Drawing    and     plying, 

148.  Roving,  148.     Spinning, 

149.  Weaving,  150.  Various 
transformations  of,  151.  Ex- 
port of,  271.  Effect  of  culti- 
vation of,  on  progress  of  so- 
ciety, 393,  394.  Montgome- 
ry's comparison  of  American 
and  British  manufacture,  401. 

Cotton-mill,  finest  example  of  au- 
tomatic industry,  40. 

Cradle,  in  agriculture,  119. 

Cream,  constituents  of,  183. 

Creation,  works  of,  formed  on 
mathematical  principles,  71. 

Crops,  green.  111.  Rotation  of, 
112,  332,  335.  White,  332. 
Green,  332. 

Crystallizability,  300. 

Culinary  processes,  179—181  ^ 
boiling,  179,  180  ;   baking,  181. 

Culley,  his  '  Observations  on  Live 
Stock,'  327. 

Culture,  benefits  of,  to  the  artisan, 
35,  36.     Root,  115. 

Cylinder,  hollow,  advantage  of, 
in  the  form  of  a  column,  131— 
133.  Bones  of  tlie  human  frame 
formed  on  the  principle  of,  132. 
Employed  in  Nature,  133. 

Cylinders,  for  drying  paper,  158 


INDEX. 


429 


D. 

Daminni,  Cardinal,  strictures  of, 
on  luxury,  374. 

Dams,  how  uiidcrinined,  65. 

Daw.  Sir  ilumplirev,  '  I'rinniples 
of  .Vgricultural  Cliomistry,'  25. 
Safety  lamp,  34.  On  manures, 
113.  On  electricity  applied  to 
plants,  115.  Improver  of  agri- 
culture, 117.  Application  of 
chemistry  to  agriculture,  331. 

Dead  water,  23(}. 

Dean,  Professor,  on  Duel's  '  Far- 
mer's Companion,'  343. 

Decay,  causes  of,  124,  125  ;  ar- 
chitect must  guard  against,  125. 
Antidotes  against,  125,  126.  In 
wood,  126.  Vegetable  and  an- 
imal substances  liable  to,  185. 
Causes  of,  185  ;  moisture,  185  ; 
air,  186  ;  heat,  187.  Temper- 
ature most  favorable  to,  187. 
Arrested  at  freezing  point,  187. 
Prevented  by  antiseptics,  187. 

Deckel,  156. 

Defoe,  origin  of  his  romance  of 
Robinson  Crusoe,  10. 

Description  of  England,  Harri- 
son's, 344. 

Diagonal  of  a  parallelogram,  51. 

Digester,  Papin's,  180. 

Distillation,  process  of,  177. 

Distilling,  297.   , 

Divisibilitv,  processes  referrible 
to,  296-299. 

Division  of  labor,  257,  283. 

Dixon,  Joseph,  discoverer  of 
meliiod  of  copying  by  transfer, 
228  ;  process  described,  229  ; 
account  of  his  discovery,  229  ; 
specimens,  229.  Copies  of 
medals  by,  38S. 

•  Doctor,'    quotation  from,  35(1 

Dotting-cylinder,  14S. 

Dotting-plate,  148. 

Dallond,  inventor  of  the  achro- 
matic glass,  206. 

Donkin's  pressure  apparatus,  158. 

Double-speeder,  description  and 
use  of,  148,  149. 

Draining,  of  soils,  110,  111 


I]  Draining,  tile,  how  eflected,  337. 
'I       Benefits  of,  337. 
i  Drains,  see  Draining. 
||  Drill,  agricultural  implement,  119. 
II  Dry-rot,  126. 

'  Dupont's    copying    by    transfer, 
228. 
Dyeing,  a  chemical  process,  1C2. 
!      Depends  on  atlinities,  162.     Use 
I      of  njordants  in,  163. 

E. 

Eastern  islands,  want  of  iron 
among  people  of,  198. 

Economy,  an  effect   of   improve 

ments    in    the    arts,    257.     Of 

materials,  257,  258. 

J  Eden,  Sir  F.  M.,  on  diet  in  Eng- 

I      land,  344.     His  '  History  of  the 

Poor,'  361. 

Edward  III.,  condition  of  the  Eng- 
lish people  during  the  reign  of, 
360-365  ;  of  the  city  of  Col- 
chester, 360—365.  Dress  in  the 
reign  of,  371,  372. 

Egypt,  architecture  in,  128,  134, 
135.     Pyramids  of,  135. 

Egyptians,  unacquainted  with  the 
arch,  128  ;  with  the  arts  of 
building,  134,  135  ;  with  the 
use  of  weaver's  shuttle,  142. 

Elasticity,  of  air,  71.  Processes 
founded  on,  300. 

Electricity,  assists  vegetation,  115. 
A  destroying  agent,  125. 

Electricity,  galvanic,  engraving 
by,  382-388.  Common  copper- 
plates copied  by,  387,  388. 
Precipitating  metals  by,  appli- 
cable to  various  purposes  in  the 
arts,  388  ;  to  copying  medals, 
388. 

Elephant,  effective  force  of,  55. 

Elixir  of  life,  pursuit  of,  conse- 
quence of  ignorance,  31. 

Elizabeth,  reign  of,  state  of  the  arts 
during,  254,  255.  Domestic 
accommodations,  comforts, &c., 
of  the  people  during,  254,  255, 
344-349.  England  in  the  reign 
of    344-349.     Hose  worn   by, 


430 


INTJEX. 


347  Clothing,  lodgings,  &c., 
of  the  people,  347-349. 

Embossing,  process  of,  226. 

Emery,  in  polishing  glass,  205. 

Emplovinent,  productive,  depen- 
dence of  national  welfiire,  on, 

262.  In  arts  and  manufactures, 

263.  Varieties  of,  269. 
Engine,  beating,  in  paper-making, 

155.  Fire,  how  worked,  71. 
Steam,  sec  Steam-engine.  Stuff, 
154. 

England,  husbandry  in,  lOS.  On 
progress  of  luxury  in,  254,  255. 
Civilization  in,  a  consequence 
of  cultivation  of  the  useful  arts, 
2S0-282.  Prosperity  of,  281. 
Moral  condition  of  operatives  in, 
289  ;  of  peasantry,  289.  Ac- 
count of  present  state  of  agricul- 
ture in ,  329-34 1 .  Climate  and 
soil  compared  with  those  of 
United  States,  329,  330  ;  price 
of  land  and  labor,  330,  331. 
Agricultural  wealth  of,  341. 
Description  of,  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  344-349  ;  food,  344- 
346;  clothins,  347  :  lod£inss, 
347-349.  Mode  of  livin'g.  ^in 
the  reign  of  Henrv  VII.,  359  : 
Edward  III.,  360-365,  37o! 
Dress  in,  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, 371.  Cotton  manufac- 
ture in,  compared  with  United 
States,  401. 

Engravers'  plates,  method  of 
forming,  215.  \ 

Engraving,  varieties  of,  215. 
Wood,  215.  Line,  215.  Me- 
chanical, 215.  Mezzotinto,  215. 
Chemical,  215.  Etching,  215, 
216.  Galvanic,  216.  On  steel, 
Perkins's  invention  for  multi- 
plying copies  of,  227.  By  gal- 
vanic"electricity,  382-388.'  Pro- 
cess of,  described,  385-388. 

Epsom  salt,  42. 

Equilibrium,  unstable,  53. 

Erasmus,  on  mode  of  living  in 
England,  364. 

Ericson's  propeller,  246. 


''Etching,  process  of,  215.,  216 

-Evaporation,  of  sea-water,  salts 

I      resulting  from,  42. 

:  Everett,   Edward,     work    of,   re- 
ferred to,  310. 

,  Exchanges,  domestic  promote  na- 

I      tional  prosperity,  273,  274. 

I  Exchanges,  commercial,  284-286. 

I      Domestic,  286. 

^  Expense  of  manufacturing  cotton 

I      in  America  and  Great  Britain 

1      compared,  401. 

j  Exploding,  or  blastmg,  298. 
Exports    of    United   States,  272, 
273. 

1  Eye,  human,  formation  of,  207. 


[Factories,  heating  by  steam,  78. 

I  Fallowing,  lands,  111,  333. 
Famines,  caused  by  ignorance  and 

1      imperfection  of  husbandry,  120. 

i  Farnier,  the,  importance  of  scien- 
tific knowledge  to,  24—26.  A 
chemist,  116.       Improved  con- 

I      dition  of,  120. 

i '  Farmer's   Companion,'    quoted, 

'      115.     Remarks  on,  343. 
Feldspar,     material    of    Chinese 

I      porcelain,  212. 

'  Fellenberg,  institution  of,  at  Hof- 
wyl,  400. 

I  Fermentation,    processes    depen- 

1      dent  on,  171.     Arts  connected 

j      with,  171.     Different  kinds  of, 

j      172.    Vinous,  instances  of,  172, 

I      173.     Acetous,  174. 

I  Fibres,  on  twistina,  weaving.  Sec, 

I      138-140.  Of  flax,  cotton,  wool, 

!      fur,  rags,  139. 
Fine  arts,  11. 

,  Fire-engine,  how  worked,  71. 

;  Fletcher,  statement  of,  respecting 

mendicancy  in  Scotland,  352. 
Flint,  constituent   of  glass,  200, 

201. 
Fluids,  action  of  gravity  through, 
60.  Flowing  through  orifices, 
pipes,  canals.  Sac,  62.  Slight 
cohesion  of,  63.  On  the  pressure 
of,  64,  65  ;  its  equality,  63,  64. 


INDEX. 


431 


Level  of,  65  ;  a  consequence  of 
equal  pressure  and  gravity,  G3. 
Specific  gravity  of,  67. 

Fly-wheel,  application  of  inertia, 
50.     Power  of,  97.     Use  of,  98. 

Food,  on  preparing,  170,  171, 
179,  1S5.  Application  of  heat 
to,  179-181.  On  preserving, 
185-187.  Improvement  of,  in 
quantity  and  quality,  188.  In 
England,  in  the  reign  of  F.liza- 
beth,  344-346. 

Foot,  formed  on  the  principle  of 
the  arch,  129. 

Force,  advantage  of  changing  the 
direction  of,  93  ;  in  steam- 
boats, 94. 

Force,  animal,  54-56,  104,  231. 
Should  be  employed,  when  pos- 
sible, in  preference  to  human, 
56,  231. 

Force,  centrifugal,  50,  51. 

Force,  human,  compared  with  an- 
imal, 56,  231.  Most  expensive 
of  all  forces,  56  ;  least  conve- 
nient, 56.  E.xercised  without 
intelligence,  degrades  man,  56. 
In  the  East,  232. 

Forces,  or  prime  movers,  47,  48, 
68.  Two,  acting  on  a  body  in 
motion,  51.  Employed  to  pro- 
duce motion,  54.  Regulated 
by  machinery,  97.  Of  variable 
intensity,  97. 

Forces,  animate,  54,  104.  Laws 
regulating,  54,  55,  104. 

Forces,  inanimate,  56,  57,  71,  75, 
104. 

Form,  in  printing,  224. 

Fourdrinier,  Messrs.,  their  paper 
machine,  157. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  309,  310. 

Free  cities  of  Europe,  the  useful 
arts  in,  279.  Impulse  given  by, 
to  civilization  and  liberty,  308. 

Free  trade,  290,  291. 

French  decrees,  effect  on  .Ameri- 
can commerce,  276. 

Friction,  232,  233.  Expedients 
for  lessening,  233  ;  rolling  mo- 
tion, 233. 


Frit,  202. 

Frost,  caused  by  evaporation,  and 

radiation,  116. 
Fruit,  preservation  of,  1S6  ;  Ap- 

pert's  process  for,  186. 
Fulling  cloth,  140.     Known  to  the 

fiireeks  and  Romans,  141. 
Fulling-mill,  140. 
Fulton,    his     want     of    scientific 

knowledge,  321. 
Fur,  bowing  of,  139. 
Furnaces,  defects  in  construction 

of,  86.    Hints  for  improvements 

in,  86,  87.     Hot-blast,  87. 
Fusibility,  300. 

G. 

Galileo,  33.  His  application  of 
science  to  art,  34.  Discoveries 
of,  59,  131.  Charged  with 
Atheism,  133.  On  limit  to  size 
in  works  of  art,  133. 

Gallev,  printer's,  223. 

Galvanism,  383,  384. 

Gaiigues,  of  metals,  191. 

Gas,  carbonic  arid,  necessary  to 
plants,  109.  How  generated, 
110,111.  A  principle  of  decay. 
124. 

Gas,  chlorine,  used  in  bleaching 
paper-rags,  154. 

Gas,  sulphurous  acid,  160. 

Gauze,  how  woven,  139. 

Geometry,  applied  to  architect- 
ure, 122-124. 

Gin,  rolling,  145. 

Gin,  saw,  145. 

Glass,  200-206.  Important  uses 
of,  200.  Windows,  a  modern 
invention,  201.  Making,  201  ; 
blowing,  202  ;  casting,  203  : 
moulding,      204  ;      annealing, 

204  ;     grinding     and     cutting, 

205  ;     coloring    and    staining, 
205,  206. 

Glauber's  salt,  42. 

Glazing  pottery,  process  of,  211 

Chinese,  211.     Of  stone  ware, 

211.     Lead,  212. 
Gold,  purity,  test  of,  67. 
Gordon,  Mr.,  on  applications  ol 


432 


INDEX. 


steam,  83-85.  On  steam-boat 
coiivejance,  243. 

Governor,  a  regulating  machine, 
98. 

Grain,  waste  of,  121. 

Grainger,  on  Tillage,  326. 

Granite,  method  of  splitting,  near 
Seringapatam,  27. 

Granulating,  297. 

Grape,  yields  best  wine,  173,  174. 

Grape-vines,  furnished  with  elec- 
tric conductors,  115. 

Gravitation,  universality  of  law  of, 
13.  A  principle  of  architecture, 
127.  Machinery  founded  on 
law  of,  300. 

Gravity,  substances  act^d  on  by, 
57  ;  its  effect  on  solid  bodies, 
57,  105  ;  on  projectiles,  57. 
.'Vccelerating  force  of,  58.  Acts 
through  fluids,  60  ;  examples, 
60-71,105;  water-wheels,  60, 
6i,  105;  pipes,  canals,  &c., 
62,  105.  Action  modified  by 
pressure  of  fluids,  63.  One 
cause  of  the  level  of  fluids,  65. 
Of  aeriform  bodies,  68.  Ac- 
tion of,  on  water,  105  ;  on  air, 
105. 

Gravity,  centre  of,  52.  Necessi- 
ty of  supporting,  53.  Impor- 
tance of  determining  position 
of,  53. 

Gravity,  specific,  mode  of  as- 
certaining, 66.  Of  solids  66  ; 
fluids,  67.  Water  the  standard 
of,  66.  Advantage  over  air,  66. 
Mode  of  ascertaining  invented 
by  Archimedes,  67.  A  test  of 
the  purity  of  substances,  67. 

Great  Britain,  slow  advance  of 
ajricultural  improvements  in, 
325.  Increased  production  and 
accumulation  of,  367—370,  Sta- 
tistics of  population  in,  367, 
368  ;  of  articles  of  consumption, 
&c.,  368,  369  ;  of  commerce, 
&c.,  369.  Road-communica- 
tion of,  39 1 .  Comparative  rate 
of  travelling  in,  at  different  pe- 
riods, 391,   392.     E.\pense  of 


manufacturing  cotton  compared 
with  the  United  States,  401. 

Greeks,  ignorance  of  mechanic 
powers,  72  ;  of  the  useful  arts, 
256.  Agricultural  implements 
used  by,  119.  Spinning  and 
weaving  among,  141. 

Greene,  Nathaniel,  the  black- 
smith, 309. 

Griffiths,  IMr. ,  on  roads  in  Ireland, 
243. 

Grindstones,  singular  action  of 
centrifugal  force  on,  50 

Guinard,  M.,  improvement  of,  in 
objectglasses,  207. 

Guizot,  on  combination  of  theory 
with  practice,  250. 

Gun,  air,  72. 

Gunnery,  art  of,  indebted  to  men 
of  science,  57. 

II. 

Half-stuff",  154. 

Hamilton,  on  commercial  ex- 
changes, 284. 

Hammer,  tilt,  velocity  of,  97. 

Hand,  excellence  and  powers  of, 
88,  89. 

Hargreaves,  Richard,  introduced 
the  spinning-jenny,  142. 

Harrison,  on  bread  in  Elizabeth's 
reign  ,344.  On  poverty  in  reign 
of  Edward  III.,  362,  364. 

Harte,  Mr.,  'Essays'  of,  referred 
to,  325. 

Heat,  as  a  mechanical  agent,  75, 
105  ;  expands  bodies,  75,  105  ; 
remarkable  instance  of  its  use, 
75.     Substances  contracted  by, 

77.  Effects  of  expansive  pow- 
er of,  78  ;  sometimes  injurious, 

78.  Effect  of,  on  pendulums, 
78  ;  causes  irregularity  in 
clocks,  78.  Changes  form  of 
bodies,  78-81,  105.  Changes 
water  to  vapor,  78.  An  almost 
universal  fuser,  85.  Importance 
of,  85.  Production  and  appli- 
cation of,  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant arts,  85  ;  still  very  im- 
perfect, 86  ;  defects  in,  86, 87 


INDEX. 


433 


On  practical  ecouoniy  of,  86. 
liints  on  generating  and  using, 
86,  87,  105.  Service  of,  to 
plants,  115,  116.  A  cause  of 
decay,  125,  187. 

Elenry  IV.,  mode  of  living  in  the 
reign  of,  373-375. 

Henry  VII.,  mode  of  living  in  the 
reign  of,  359. 

llerschel,  his  Discourse  on  study 
of  natural  philosophy,  27,  28. 

Hiero,  King  of  Syracuse,  67. 

Highlands  of  Scotland,  miserable 
condition  of  people  of,  in  eigh- 
teenth century,  354-357.  Ben- 
efit of  opening  good  roads  in, 
241.      See  Scotland. 

History,  its  neglect  of  state  and 
progress  of  the  arts,  247. 

'  History  of  the  Middle  and  Work- 
ing Classes,'  in  England, 
Wade's,  345,  346. 

Hofwryl,  Fellenberg's  institution 
at,  400. 

Ilolingshed's  'Chronicle,'  on  the 
progress  of  luxury  in  England, 
137,  255,  347-349. 

Home-market,  advantages  of, 
273,  286. 

Horse,  force  exerted  by,  55.  Best 
method  of  employing  strength 
of,  55. 

Horse-power,  231. 

Hot-blast,  in  furnaces,  87.  In 
fusing  iron,  376. 

Hot-pressed  paper,  157. 

Houses,  improvement  in,  351. 

Human  force,  see  Force. 

Hamate,  109. 

Hume,  on  raising  and  use  of  veg- 
etables in  England,  345. 

Humen,  110. 

Husbandry,  in  England,  327. 
Drill,  introduced  in  I'ngland, 
by  Tull,  327.  Stock,  improve- 
ment in,  327.  Arable^  progress 
of,  328.     Implements  of,  340. 

Hydrostatic  bellows,  principle  of, 
63. 

Hydrostatic  press,  force  of,  64  ; 
explained,  64. 

37 


Hy  Irostatic  pressure,  63,  64. 


Ice  preserves  food,  187. 

Ignorance,  dangers  of,  22,  &c., 
30,  45.  Cause  of  failure  or 
delay  in  attempted  inventions 
or  improvements,  31,  32,  33, 
321,  322.  Of  scientific  princi- 
ples, 73,  ?4. 

Impenetrability,  299. 

Implements  of  agriculture,  118, 
119.  Improvements  in,  118- 
121.  Used  by  the  Greeks, 
119.  Plough,  119;  harrow, 
119  ;  drill,  119  ;  cradle,  119. 
Inventions  in,  120.  Production 
increased  fivefold  by  means  of, 
120. 

Inclined  plane,  91.  Includes  the 
screw,  and  wedge,  91. 

India  muslin,  141. 

Inertia,  48-50.  Gradually  over- 
come in  the  case  of  rail-road 
cars,  49.  ISIachinery,  founded 
on  principle  of,  299,  300. 

Instruction,  technological,  397. 
Professorships  of,  in  Germany 
and  France,  399. 

Instruments,  levelling,  66.  Use 
of,  66. 

Intellect,  supremacy  of,  249. 

Inventors,  in  the  arts,  qualifica- 
tions for  becoming,  31,  32. 
Names  of  most  distinguished, 
33.  Generally  men  of  science, 
33,  34.  Borrow  hints  from  the 
works  of  Nature,  102. 

Ireland,  benefit  to  parts  of,  from 
improved  roads,  242,  243. 

Iron,  value  of,  189,  190.  Art  of 
working  introduced  into  Britain 
by  Julius  Ca?sar,  190.  Process 
of  working  ;  cast  ;  wrought  ; 
puddling  and  rolling  ;  pigs  ; 
case-hardening;  cementation  of; 
tempering,  195.  Conversion  of, 
into  a  knife-blade,  195-199. 
Demand  for,  in  the  I^astern  isl- 
ands, 198.  INIanufacture  of, 
295. 

S.  A. 


434 


INDEX. 


Iron,  American,  Mr.  Biddle  on 
manufacture  of,  376-382.  Ap- 
plication of  hot-blast  to  fusion 
of,  376.  Importation  of,  377, 
381.  Means  for  manufactur- 
ing in  our  own  country,  378, 
379. 

Iron,  cast,  how  converted  into 
wrought,  96,  195. 

Iron-rolling,  220.       • 

Iron-trade,  increase  of,  367. 

Irrigation,  338,  339. 

Italy,  vegetables  introduced  into 
England  from,  345. 

'Itinerary  of  England, 'JMory son's, 
346. 

Ivorj'-black,  161. 

J. 

Jacobi,     Professor,     on    galvanic 

engraving,  383. 
James  I.,  price    of  provisions  in 

reign   of,  346  ;    clothing  worn, 

347. 

.       K. 

Kempton,  Mr.,  on  cotton  manu- 
facture in  America,  271. 

Kennedy,  on  tillage,  326. 

Kidderminster  carpets,  140. 

Knowledge,  agency  of,  on  human 
power  and  happiness,  247. 
Characterizes  modern  art,  248. 
Increased  regard  paid  to,  249. 
A  necessary  of  life,  317.  Im- 
portant assistant  in  business, 
318-322.  Moral  and  intellec- 
'tual  advantages  of,  323.  Pow- 
er conferred  by,  324. 

L. 

Labor,  must  be  adapted  to  climate 
and  position,  267.  Division  of, 
257,  283  ;  favors  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  mind,  314.  Price 
of,  in  United  States  and  Eng- 
land, 379. 

Lace,  mode  of  weaving,  139. 

Lactometer,  67. 

Land  conveyance,  237,  238. 

Lathe,  turning,  99. 


La  Vendee,  Lavoisier's  farm  in, 
117,  lis. 

Lavoisier,  117,  118.  His  arrest 
and  fate,  117. 

Law  of  definite  proportions,  46. 

Laws  of  atKnity,  41—47. 

Laws  of  motion,  48-54,  104,  248. 

Laws  of  Nature,  13,  14,  21,  22, 
23,  31,248. 

Lead,  sulphate  of,  how  produc- 
ed, 43,  44.  Why  so  called, 
44. 

Lead,  sugar  of,  its  composition, 
43.  Results  of  mixing  with 
white  vitriol,  43.  Employed  in 
adulterating  wine,  175. 

Legare,  Hon.  H.  S.,  speech  of, 
281,  282,  393-395. 

Leicester,  Earl  of,  334. 

Level  of  fluids,  65.  Principle  of 
fountains,  &c.,  65.  Of  level- 
ling instruments,  66.  See  Flu- 
ids. 

Level,  water,  construction  and 
figure  of,  66. 

Levelling  instruments,  65,  66. 

Lever,  the,  examples  of,  89,  95. 
Ofthreekinds,  89,  90.  Figures 
of,  90.  Action  of,  on  veloci 
ty,  95. 

Liberal  arts,  19,  20. 

Light,  effect  of,  on  plants,  115. 

Lime,  constituent  part  of  plants, 
110,   113. 

Lime,  chloride  of,used  for  bleach- 
ing, 155,  160. 

Line  engraving,  215. 

Linen,  scarcity  of,  in  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  347  ;  of  Henry  VlL, 
359,  363. 

Liquids,  their  solvent  property, 
41,  103.  Increased  by  heat, 
41.  Point  of  saturation  in,  42. 
When  saturated  with  one  sub- 
stance, capable  of  combining 
with  a  second  and  third,  42. 

Lithograpliy,  process  of,  216. 

Locomotion,  advantages  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of,  230-232.  Rela- 
tive value  of  steam,  as  a  means 
of,  231,  232.    Wheel  carriages. 


INDEX. 


435 


232-235.      Vessels,  235,  236. 

Roads,  237,  &c. 
London  Quarterly  Review,  221- 

224. 
Lothians,  the,  state  of  the  people 

in,  85G. 
Lowell,    manufactories    at,    263, 

290. 
Lyons,  silk  manufacture  of,  304- 

30G.     School  of  arts  at,  304. 

M. 

McCulloch's  '  Statistics  of  the 
British  Empire,'  143,  149,  329, 
357.  On  division  of  labor,  283  ; 
on  slow  advance  of  agricultural 
improvements  in  England,  325. 
On  clothing,  food,  &c.,  in  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  347.  On  manu- 
factures and  agriculture  in  Scot- 
land, 351. 

Machine,  calico,  40. 

Machine,  new  printing,  225. 

Machinery,  employed  in  the  arts, 
S7-102.  All  composed  of  the 
three  simple  machines,  92,  105. 
Uses  of,  92-100,  105,  106  ;  di- 
vides resistance,  92  ;  changes 
direction,  93  ;  changes  velocity, 
94,  106  ;  renders  motion  uni- 
form, 97,  106  ;  accumulates 
force,  98,  106  ;    saves  power, 

98,  106  ;  secures  exactness  in 
work,  99,  106  ;  increases  ef- 
ficiency of  human  strength,  99  ; 
of  inanimate  forces  of  Nature, 

99.  Further  advantages  of, 
100;  examples,  100.  Reasons 
for  the  invention  and  employ- 
ment of,  105.  Used  in  manu- 
facturing cloth,  &c.,  141-145. 
Economy  of,  257.  Substitution 
of,  for  human  labor,  270  ;  ad- 
vantage of  this,  271. 

Machines,  construction  of,  89. 
Those  employed  in  architec- 
ture, 134  ;  at  first  very  rude, 
134.  Improvement  in,  135. 
Advantages  from  the  knowl- 
edge and  use  of,  136.  L^sed  in 
the  manufacture  of  cloth,  &c.. 


141-145.  Those  used  in  paper- 
making,  153-158  ;  in  calico- 
printing,  165-168  ;  in  making 
ship-biscuit,  171  ;  in  working 
iron,  197. 

Machines,  simple,  enumeration 
and  description  of,  89-92,  105. 
Reduced  to  three  classes,  92. 
Applierl  to  accumulate  force, 
98.  Of  unlimited  application, 
101. 

Magnitude,  limit  to,  in  works  of 
art,  133  ;  of  Nature,  134. 

Malt,  173. 

Man,  his  j)hysical  inferiority  to 
other  animals,  9;  Robinson  Cru- 
soe, 9;  Ross  Cox,  10.  His  in- 
tellectual power,  10;  eflects  of, 
as  cooperating  with  the  laws  and 
powers  of  Nature,  11.  Superior 
to  the  animals  by  means  of  the 
arts,  36.  Agent  of  powers  of 
Nature,  39,  100.  Twofold  of- 
fice of,  in  regard  to  Nature,  39. 
Superiority  of,  to  animals,  88. 
Hand  of,  S3.  A  tool-making 
animal,  89.  Requires  the  aid 
of  machinery,  99.  AVonderful 
frame  of,  102.  Progressive 
powers  of  his  mind,  shown  in 
architecture,  122.  Clothing  of, 
138.  Happiness  and  virtue  of, 
affected  by  physical  comforts, 
253.  Importance  of  study  and 
knowledge  to,  324. 

.Manual  labor,  not  incompatible 
with  study,  310. 

Manufactories,  in  the  United 
States,  statistics  of,  263,  264. 
At  Lowell,  263.  Division  of 
labor  in,  265.  Show  the  closo 
connexion  between  science  and 
industry,  266. 

Manufacture,  of  scythes,  97.  Of 
boxes,  99.  Of  cloth,  paper, 
&c.,  137-170.  Of  India  mus- 
lin, 141,  142.  Of  cotton,  145 
-152,401.  Of  paper,  152-158. 
Of  metals,  189-199.  Of  glass, 
199-206.  Of  pottery  and  por- 
celain, 207-213. 


436 


IXDEX. 


Manufacture,  chemical,  depends 
on  affinities,  40.  Mechanical, 
automatic,  40. 

Manufactures,  occupation  afford- 
ed by,  263.  American,  277, 
278,  285.  Encouragement  of, 
not  prejudicial  to  interests  of 
commerce  and  agriculture,  278, 
285,  286.  Advantage  of,  to 
England,  280-282.  Classifica- 
tion of,  294.  French,  silk,  304 
-306. 

Manufactures,  chemical,  classifi- 
cation of,  301-303.  Those  em- 
ployed on  mineral  substances, 
301;  on  vegetable,  301,  302  : 
on  animal,  301,  303.  Of  me- 
tallic substances,  301  ;  earthy, 
302;  combustible,  302  ;  saline, 
302. 

Manure,  application  of,  to  differ- 
ent soils,  25.  Different  kinds 
of,  112.  Varieties  of  mineral, 
112  ;  their  use,  112,  113.  An- 
imal, kinds  and  use  of,  113. 
Vegetable,  113  ;  Sir  H.  Davy 
on,  113  ;  General  Armstrong, 
114.  Most  common,  114.  Bone- 
dust,  113,328. 

Manuscript  copies  of  books,  227, 
228. 

-Maps,  colored,  by  metal  tvpes, 
226. 

.Marseilles  quilts,  mode  of  weav- 
ing, 140. 

Martin,  General,  his  legacy  to 
found  a  School  of  Arts,  306. 

^laterial  history  of  man,  interest 
of  a,  247. 

Mathematical  sciences,  connexion 
with  the  useful  arts,  14,  15. 

Matrices,  of  metals,  191.  Moulds, 
217. 

Matter,  inert,  48. 

.Meat,  butchers',  high  price  of,  in 
reign  of  James  I., 346.  Increas- 
ed demand  for,  in  Scotland, 
357.  Little  nsed  in  reign  of 
Henry  IV.,  374. 

Mechanical  agents,  47,  48,  68, 
104, 


Mechanical  agricultuie,  119. 

Mechanical  manufacture,  40. 

Mechanical  philosophy,  depea- 
dence  of  architecture  on,  127. 
Principles  of,  127. 

^lechanical  powers,  ignorance  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  res- 
pecting, 72.  Principles  not 
generally  understood,  73  ;  in- 
stances of  this,  73,  74.  Enum- 
eration of,  89,  105  ;  examples 
of,  lever,  89  ;  wheel  and  axle, 
89,  90  ;  inclined  plane,  screw, 
and  wedge,  91  ;  pulley  and 
rope,  91.  Reduced  to  three 
classes,  92. 

^lechanics,  on  the  influence  of, 
in  the  community,  307.  Ben- 
efits conferred  on  society  by, 
308.  Services  of,  to  the  cause 
of  liberty,  309.  Means  of,  for 
obtaining  useful  knowledge, 
312  ;  time,  314  ;  facilities,  as 
books,  lectures,  &c.,  313.  Ad- 
vantages of  learning,  to,  316— 
318.  Usefulness  and  happi- 
ness of,  proportionate  to  knowl- 
edge, 317.  Knowledge,  of  es- 
sential service  to,  in  business, 
318,  319  ;  in  providing  against 
emergencies,  320  ;  enabling  to 
judge  of  inventions  &c.,  320  ; 
to  invent  and  improve,  321  ; 
moral  and  intellectual  advan- 
tages of  knowledge  to,  323. 

Mechanic's  Literary  and  Benevo- 
lent Society,  Address  before, 
306-325. 

Mechanism ,  traces  of,  in  the  works 
of  God,  101,  102. 

Medals,  process  of  stamping,  221. 
Copied  by  means  of  galvanic 
electricity,  388,  389. 

Meigle,  account  of  the  parish  of, 
353,  354. 

Mendicancy,  in  Scotland,  352, 
356. 

Metals,  arts  of  working,  189-199. 
Value  and  usefulness  of,  189. 
Processes  of  working,  190. 
Found     combined    with    other 


INDEX. 


437 


substances,  190.  Working  of 
pure,  194.  Casting,  194.  Used 
lor  engraver's  plates,  215. 

Mexico,  architecture  of,  134. 
Temple  at,  135. 

Mezzotinto,  215. 

Milk,  Oil  liie  management  of,  ISl 
—18.3.  How  made  into  cheese, 
182  ;  butter,  183. 

Mills,  wind,  71. 

Mills,  cattle,  used  in  Rome,  72. 

Mills,  saw,  94. 

Millstones,  carious  process  in 
France,  28. 

Mind,  power  of,  seen  in  the  op- 
erations of  a  large  factory, 
266. 

."Mineral  manures,  112,  113. 

Mines,  of  Cornwall,  description 
of,  191,  192. 

Mines,  coal  and  iron,  in  United 
States,  377,  378. 

Mining,  art  and  processes  of,  191, 
192. 

Moisture  promotes  decomposition, 
185. 

Montgolfier,  Messrs.,  their  mode 
of  bleaching  paper-rags,  154. 

Montgomery's  comparison  of  A- 
merican  and  British  cotton  man- 
ufacture, 401. 

Moody,  Paul,  a  distinguished  ma- 
chinist, 150.  His  warping  ma- 
chine, 150. 

Mordants,  derivation  of  the  name, 
163.  Oifice  of,  163.  Mode  of 
using,  163,  164. 

Morvson,  his  '  Itinerary  of  Eng- 
land,' 346. 

Motion,  laws  of,  48-54,  104,  248; 
inertia,  48  ;  centrifugal  force, 
50;  degree  and  direction  of  force 
applied,  51  ;  when  a  body  is 
acted  upon  by  two  forces,  52  ; 
principle  of  action  and  reaction, 
54.  Forces  employed,  to  pro- 
duce, 54.  Gravity  as  a  mov- 
ing force,  57.  Uniform  accel- 
eration of,  57,  58.  Producod 
by  gravity,  58.  Uniformity  of, 
result  of  macliinerv,  97.     Roll- 


ing and  sliding,  233.     Through 

water,  235-237.   On  rail-roads, 

238. 
Motion,  compound,  instances  and 

laws  of,  51,  52. 
Moulds,  paper,  156. 
Mountains,  height  of,  indicated  by 

the  barometer,  70. 
Moving  power,  152,  231,  232. 
Mule,  machine  used  in  spinning, 

149.     Self-acting,  149. 
Jlusic-printing,  225. 
Muslin,    India,    manufacture    of, 

141. 

N. 
National  prosperity,  see  Prosperi- 

Natural  philosophy,  Herschel's 
Discourse  on  the  study  of,  27, 
28. 

Nature,  architecture  of,  122,  129 
-133.  Furnishes  ideas  to  man, 
124,   128. 

Nature,  laws  of,  the  foundation 
of  the  principles  on  which  the 
useful  arts  depend,  13,  14.  Ab- 
solute and  immutable,  21.  Dis- 
covered and  made  known  by 
science,  21.  A  knowledge  of, 
essential  to  the  artisan,  22,  23. 
Forbid  the  inventor  in  the  arts 
to  attempt  impossibilities,  31, 
248. 

New  England,  manufactories  in, 
264. 

New  Zealand,  houses  in,  136. 

Nimmo,  !Mr. ,  on  roads  in  Ireland, 
242. 
I  Nomenclature,   chemical,   princi- 
!       pies  of,  43,  44. 

NortI\umberland,     Duke    of,    hia 
est;ililishment,  in  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, 359,  363. 
:  Nottinghamshire,  tile  draining  in, 
337. 

'  Novum    Organum,'    of  Bacon 
I      251. 

O. 

'  Oil  has  no  affinity  for  water,  40 


438 


INDEX. 


Oils,  essential,  how  procured, 177. 
Uses  of,  177. 

Oleometer,  67. 

Operatives,  English,  moral  condi- 
tion of,  2S9. 

Ores,    dressing,    &c.,    192.     Re- 
ducing,   193.      Smeltmg,   193, 1 
196.     Assaying,  193.  i 

Ox,  used  for  farm  labor,  55. 

Oxides,  metallic,  used  in  coloring 
glass,  205  ;  for  glazing  pottery, 
211  ;  of  lead,  in  glass-making, 
207.  j 

P.  \ 

Paper,  improvement  in  the  man- 
ufacture of,  152,  153.  Process 
of  making,  153—158.  Sizing 
of,  155,  157.  ^Moulds,  156. 
Water-mark  in,  156.  Forming 
sheets  of,  156,  157.  Hot-press- 
ed, 157.  ^lanufactured  by  ma- 
chinery, 157  ;  advantages  of 
this  mode,  157,  15S. 

Papin's  digester,  ISO. 

Parallelogram,  diagonal  of,  de- 
scribed by  a  moving  body  when 
acted  upon  by  two  forces,  at 
right  angles,  51. 

Parietal  bones,  130. 

Paris,  Matthew,  extravagant  en- 
tertainments mentioned  by, 370, 
371.     On  dress,  371. 

Paris,  plaster  of,  210. 

'  Parson's  Tale,'  Chaucer's,  quot- 
ed, 371. 

Patterns  used  in  arts  of  copying, 
214-218.  Labor  of  making 
these,  217. 

Pendulum,  98. 

Pennsylvania,  coal  and  iron  in, 
377,378.  Importance  of  lyork- 
ing  these,  381,  382. 

Perkins,  Mr.,  invention  of,  for 
multiplying  copies  of  engrav- 
ings, 227. 

Permeability,  299. 

Perrot,  M.,  inventor  of  the  Per- 
rotine,  166. 

Perrotine,  description  of,  166.  Ex- 
tensively used,  167. 


Persians,  arch  unknown  to,  128. 

Peru,  architecture  in,  134. 

Philosopher's  stone,  attempt  to 
discover,  arose  from  ignorance 
of  natural  laws,  31. 

Philosophy,  ancient  and  modem 
compared,  395-397.  Ancient 
schools  of,  395,  396.  Of  Ba- 
con, 396. 

Philosophy,  mechanical,  127. 

'  Philosophy  of  manufactures,'  Dr. 
Ure's,  quotation  from,  29. 

Physical  sciences,  their  connexion 
with  the  useful  arts,  12,  13. 

Pi,  term  used  by  printers,  223. 

Piers,  of  an  arch,  128. 

Pigs,  of  iron,  195,  196. 

Piikington,  Bishop,  reproof  of  ex- 
travagance in  dress,  375. 

Pinion,  of  a  clock,  219. 

Pinion-wire,  219. 

Pipes,  leaden,  how  made,  220. 

Pitkin,  his  '  Statistics  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,'  referred  to,  146. 

Plane,  inclined,  91. 

Planins,  297. 

PlantsTfood  of,  109-115.  Office 
of  the  roots  of,  109,  113.  Need 
stimulants,  as  light,  heat,  elec- 
tricity, 115.  Effect  of  light  on, 
115  ;  of  heat,  115. 

Plaster  of  Paris,  moulds  of,  used 
in  making  pottery,  210  ;  in  tak- 
ing busts,  214. 

Plates,  engravers',  method  of 
forming,  215. 

Plates,  stereotvpe,  how  made, 
217. 

Playfair,  Dr.,  on  the  parish  of 
Meigle,  in  Strathmore,  353. 

Ploughs,  among  the  Greeks,  119. 
Improved,  119.     Steam,  119. 

Plumb-line,  57. 

Plush,  mode  of  weaving,  139. 

Point  of  saturation,  42. 

Political  economy,  16. 

Pompeii,  glass  windows  at,  201. 

Porcelain,  clays  used  for,  208. 
Chinese,  made  of  feldspar,  212; 
superiorilv  of,  212.  Philadel- 
phia, 212.' 


INDEX. 


439 


Posidonius,  395. 

Potass,  constituent  principle  of 
pUmts,  110,  113. 

Pottery,  manufacture  of,  207-213. 
Shaping,  209.  Burning,  210. 
Glazing,  211.  Coloring  or  paint- 
ing, 212.  Connexion  of  the  art 
'with  chemical  science,  212. 
Progress  of  the  art,  212,  213. 

Powder,  used  in  stone  quarries, 
133. 

Power,  gained  by  velocity,  93. 
Relative  value  of  horse,  231  ; 
steam,  231.  Ratio  of,  to  ve- 
locitv,  237,  238  ;  to  ascent, 
239.' 

Power,  moving,  in  a  modern  fac- 
tory, 152.  Emploved  in  trans- 
portation, 231,  232.  Sfe  Trans- 
portation. 

Power,  physical,  comparative  re- 
gard for,  in  former  and  present 
times,  249.  Relative  value  of, 
and  intellect,  249. 

Power-presses,  sec  Presses. 

Press,  hydrostatic,  64. 

Press,  printing,  great  improve- 
ments in,  224. 

Press-man,  work  of  a,  224. 

Presses,  power,  &c.,  how  work- 
ed, 225.  Great  amount  of  work 
performed  by,  225.  Messrs. 
Clowcs's,  225. 

Pressure,  hydrostatic,  63,  64. 

Pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  68. 

Prime  movers^  47,  48. 

Printers'  types,  meKil  of,  194. 

Printing,  99.  Improvement  in 
the  art  of,  221.  London  Quar- 
terly Review  on,  222-224. 
Process  of,  described,  222—224. 
Rapid   improvement  in  art  of, 

225.  From  cavities,  examples 
of,  225,  226.    Of  colored  maps, 

226.  Henefits  bestowed  by  the 
art  of,  227. 

Printing  of  calico,  164—167. 

Printing-press,  great  improve- 
ments in,  224. 

Projectiles,  elTect  of  gravity  on, 
67. 


Propeller,  Captain  Ericson's,  246. 

Property,  eflect  of,  on  national 
welfare,  261.  Dependence  of, 
on  industry,  261. 

Proportional   numbers,  46. 

Proportions,  definite,  46. 

Prosperity,  national,  influence  of 
cultivation  of  the  useful  arts 
on,  261,  279-282.  Productive 
employment  essential  to,   262. 

Pulley  anfl  rope,  91.  Same  prin- 
ciple with  the  lever,  92. 

Pulp,  in  paper-making,  154,  155. 

Pulverization,  296. 

Pump,  common,  principle  of,  68, 
69,  73. 

Punching,  operation  of,  218.  In- 
stances, 218. 

Pyramids,  of  Egypt,  135.  Of 
South  .\merica,  135. 

Pyrometer,  use  of,  76,  105.  Con- 
struction of,  77.  Invented  by 
Wedgewood,  77. 

Q. 

Quarterly  Review,  London,  224 
Queen  Catharine,  345. 
Quilts,  Marseilles,  140. 

.    .  ^• 

Radiation,  occasion  of  frost,  116. 

,  Rags,  paper,  preparation  of,  152, 

I      153.    Mode  of  reducing  to  pulp, 

I       154,      155.        Grinding,      154 

Bleaching,  154,  155.     Beating, 

I      155.     Economy  of,  257. 

Rail-roads,  advantages   of,  238  ; 
when  level,  239.     Recent  ini- 
1      provemcnts  in,  244,  245. 

Rasping  and  chipping,  296. 

Rennet,  181. 

Rensselaer  Institute,  401. 
,  Resistance,  overcome  by  machin- 
j      ery,  92.    Can  be  overcome  only 

by  greater  force,  93. 
I  Review,    London    Quarterly,   on 
i      printing,  222-224. 

Revolution,  American,  state  of 
the  army  during,  275. 

Rivers,  as  mciins  of  conveyance, 
I'.      233. 


440 


INDEX. 


Roads,  ra^l,  238,  240,  244-246. 
McAdam,  239.  Among  the  an- 
cients, 240  ;  the  Romans,  240  ; 
in  England  in  time  of  Elizabeth, 

240.  Influence  on  the  happi- 
ness and  welfare  of  a  people, 

241,  &c.;  in  Highlands  of  Scot- 
land, 241  ;  in  Ireland,  243. 

Roberts,  self-acting  mule  of,  149. 

Rolling-gin,   description   of,   145. 

Romans,  absence  of  mechanic  in- 
ventions among,  72.  Spinning 
and  weaving  among,  141. 

Rotation  of  crops,  112,  332,  335. 

Roving,  148. 

Roving-frame,  148. 

Rupert's  drops,  204. 


Saggars,  210. 

St.  Martin,  abbey  of,  75. 

Sal-ammoniac,  production  of,  258. 

Salt,  common,  obtained  by  evap- 
oration, 42. 

Salt,  Glauber's,  42. 

Salt,  Epsom,  42. 

Sand,  as  a  manure,  112. 

Saturation,  point  of,  42  ;  impor- 
tance of  knowing,  42. 

Sawing,  296. 

Saw-gin,  described,  145.  Invent- 
ed by  Whitney,  145.  Effect  of, 
on  production  of  cotton,  146. 

Saw-mill,  94.     Figure  of,  94. 

School  of  Arts,  at  Lyons,  304.  At 
Paris,  and  other  cities,  399. 

Schools,  rural,  of  Switzerland 
and  Ireland,  400. 

Science,  discovers  and  applies  the 
laws  of  Nature,  21.  Importance 
of  acquaintance  with,  to  practi- 
cal men,  24,  26, 28, 30, 31-34, 
318-324.  Brougham  on  advan- 
tages of,  30,  34.  Progress  of, 
35,  316.  Effects  of  the  appli- 
cation of,  to  the  useful  arts, 
249-258.  Probable  future  dis- 
coveries of,  259.  And  indus- 
try, connexion  between,  266. 

Science,  chemical,  founded  on 
laws  of  affinity,  47,  103. 


Science,  mechanical, improvement 
in,  134-137.  Effect  of  this  on 
society,  136.  Application  of, 
to  manufacture  of  cloth,  &c., 
138-158,  166,  167. 

Scotland,  mendicancy  in,  352. 
Miserable  condition  of,  in  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries,  352-357  ;  recent  im- 
provements, 356,  357. 

Scotland,  Highlands  of,  benefita 
of  opening  good  roads,  241,242.. 

Scouring  and  cleansing  wool,  161. 

Screw,  principle  of,  91.  Figure 
of,  91. 

Scutching-machine,  147. 

Scythes,  manufacture  of,  97. 

Seneca,  philosophy  of,  395. 

Seringapatam,  granite  quarries 
near,  27. 

Sharpe's  self-acting  mule,  149. 

Shearing,  297. 

Sheep,  feed,  &c.  of,  335,  336. 
Raising  of,  in  England,  340. 
Leicester  and  South  Down, 
340,341. 

Sherman,  Roger,  809,  310. 

Sherwood  forest,  338. 

Ship-biscuit,  process  of  making, 
171,  172. 

Shot-casting,  297. 

Silica,  or  silicious  earths,  in  mak- 
ing glass,  201  ;  pottery,  208. 

Sinclair,  Sir  John,  on  making 
cheese,  182. 

Sizing,  for  paper,  155. 

Skull,  constructed  on  the  princi- 
ple of  the  arch,  129-131.  Bones 
forming  the,  130.      See  Bones. 

Slip,  cement  for  pottery,  210. 

Smeaton,  102. 

Smelling  ores,  193,  196. 

Smith's  Archimedean  screw,  246. 

Smith,  Rev.  Mr.,  account  of  con- 
dition of  Scotch  in  last  century, 
355, 356. 

Soap,  manufacture  of,  26. 

Society,  progress  of,  influenced 
by  intercourse  and  transporta- 
tion, 230,  240-243.  Affected 
by  improvements  in  the  arts, 


INDEX. 


441 


252-256,  260,  2S8,  290.  Ef- 
fect of  cultivation  of  cotton  on, 
393-395. 

Soda,  a  bleaching  agent,  160. 

Soil,  importance  of  water  to  the, 
110  ;  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  11 1  ; 
and  how  procured,  111.  On 
manuring,  112-114  ;  season  for 
tliis,  114.  Productiveness  of, 
greatly  increased  by  culture, 
117,  118.     Light,  334. 

Soils,  treatment  and  mixture  of, 
depends  on  chemical  principles, 
25,  26,  109.  Means  of  improv- 
ing, 109. 

Solders,  194. 

Solids,  subject  to  action  of  gravi- 
ty, 57,  104.  Effect  of  gravity 
on,  57,  105.  Specific  gravity 
•f,  66. 

Solution,  power  of,  limited,  41. 

Solutions,  show  the  operation  of 
affinity,  41,  103.  Principle  of, 
41,  103. 

Solvents,  liquids  are,  41,  103. 
Water  a  solvent,  124. 

South  America,  pyramids  of,  135. 
Weaving  among  the  Indians  of, 
142,  note. 

Specific  gravity,  66,  67. 

Spencer,  Thomas,  on  engraving 
by  galvanic  electricity,  3S3  ;  his 
apparatus,  384,  385.  Copying 
medals,  388.  Depositions  of 
copper,  on  clay  and  plaster,  389. 
Further  experiments  of,  390. 

Sphenoid  bone,  131. 

Spinning,  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  141.  With  the  spin- 
ning-wheel, 142  ;  spinning-jen- 
nv,  142  ;  spinning-frame,  143, 
144  ;  of  cotton,  142-144,  149. 

Spinning-frame,. \rkwright's,  143, 
144,  149. 

Spinning-jenny,  142. 

Spinning-wheel,  96,  142. 

Splitting,  297. 

Springs,  in  carriages,  use  of,  235. 

Stamping,  copying  by  means  of, 
221.     Medals,  221. 

Stamping-mill,   for   metals,    192. 


Statistics,  of  beer,  121.  Of  cot- 
ton, in  America,  146,  169  ;  in 
Great  Britain,  169.  Of  manu- 
factories in  the  United  States, 
263,  264.  Of  Great  Britain, 
367-370  ;  population,  368  ; 
grains  and  other  articles  of  food 
and  consumption,  368,  369  ; 
commerce,  agriculture,  manu- 
factures, 369. 

'  Statistics  of  the  British  Empire,' 
!\IcCulloch's,  143,  149,  329, 
349-352,  357. 

Steam,  how  produced,  78.  Id 
heating  factories,  78.  Immense 
expansion  of  water  to  form,  79 
As  a  mechanical  agent,  79-84; 
in  the  steam-engine,  80-84. 
Numerous  applications  of,  83- 
85. 

Steam-boat  conveyance,  benefits 
of,  243. 

Steam-engine,  value  of,  393. 
Low-pressure,  SO  Figure  of 
Watt's,  81.  High-pressure,  82, 
83;  superior  advantages  of,  83. 
Figure  of,  84.  Advantage  of, 
in  transportation,  231,  232. 

Steam-loom,  increasing  powers 
of,  29. 

Steam-navigation, recent  improve- 
ments in,  244. 

Steam-ploughs,  119. 

Steam-power,  advantage  over 
horse-power,  231,  232. 

Steam-ships,  royal  mail,  244. 

Steel,  how  made,  195,  198. 

Stereotype  plates,  how  made, 
217.' 

Stippling,  215. 

Story,  Judge,  on  advantages  of 
science  to  a  mechanic,  30,  32. 
Quoted,  321. 

Study,  manual  labor  not  incom- 
patible with,  310. 

Stuff-chest,  155. 

Stuff-engine,  154. 

Subliming,  298. 

Suction  pump,  69. 

Sugar  made  from  linen  rags,  258. 

Sugar  of  lead,  143,  175. 


442 


IXDEX, 


Sagar-refining,   new   process    of, 

34. 
Sulphate  of  lead,  see  Lead. 
Switzerland,  rural  schools  of,  400. 


Tea,  use  of  in  England,  346. 

Tearing,  296. 

TeaseCbur  of,  141. 

Technology,  Bigelow's,  3,  201, 
20S.  Science  of,  293.  Divis- 
ions of,  293. 

Telescope,  imDrovements  in,  206. 
207. 

Telescope,  tubes  for,  219,  220. 

Telford,  3Ir.,  on  opening  roads 
and  canals,  241,  242. 

Temperature,  measured  by  ther- 
mometer, 76,  105  ;  by  pyrom- 
eter, 76,  77,  105. 

Tempering  steel,  195. 

Temporal  bones,  130. 

Theory  and  practice,  250  ;  Gui- 
zot  on,  250. 

Thermometer,  76,  105. 

Tile  draining,  336,  337. 

Tiles,  20S. 

Tillage,  Grainger  and  Kennedy  i 
on,  326.  '  1 

Tilt-hammer,  97.  I 

Time,  on  husbanding,  312,  313.    i 

Tortility,  300.  j 

Transfer,  copying  by,  22S.  Dix- 
on's and  Dupont's,  228.  Meth-j 
cd  described,  229.  | 

Transferring,  212.  j 

Transportation,  facilities  for,  pro- 
mote improvement  and  enjoy- 
ments of  men,  230,  241.  Mov- 
ing power  employed  in,  231,  | 
232  ;  human  force  ;  horse- 
power ;  wind  and  steam,  231, 
232.  Vehicles  used  in,  232-237. 
Improved  facilities  for,  240  ; 
and  benefits  of  these,  241-246. : 

Travelling,  comparative  rates  of, ' 
in  Great  Britain,  at  different! 
periods,  391,  392. 

Trees,  architecture  of,  131. 

Triblet,  219. 

Trituration,  296. 


![  Tubal-Cain,  a  worker  of  metals, 
189. 

Tube-drawing,  process  of,  219, 
220. 

Tubes  for  telescopes,  219,  220. 

Tull,  Jethro,  on  turnip.j,  325. 
Introduced  drill  husbandry  in 
England,  327. 

Turkey  carpets,  139,  140. 

Turning,  297. 

Turnips,  cultivation  of,  325,  333; 
influence  of  this  on  English  ag- 
riculture, 332.  Advantages  of 
cultivating,  333.  Consumption 
of,  bv  sheep,  335.  Swedish, 
336.  ' 

Types,  making,  217.  How  sup- 
plied with  ink,  224. 

U. 

Ulloa,  on  weaving  among  the 
South-American  Indians,  142. 

United  States,  natural  advantages 
of,  268  ;  varieties  of  soil  and 
climate,  268  ;  rivers,  lakes,  ca- 
nals, &c.,  268.  These  resour- 
ces should  be  turned  to  account, 
269.  Peculiar  advantages  to, 
of  substituting  machinery  for 
human  force,  271.  Expense 
of  labor  in,  271.  Water-power 
in,  271.  Objections  against  en- 
couragement of  the  useful  arts 
in,  considered,  2S3-290.  Cli- 
mate and  soil  of,  compared  with 
England,  329,  330  ;  price  of 
land  and  labor,  330,  331.  Im- 
provement in  food,  clothing, 
&c.,  357,  358.  Coal  and  iron 
mines.  377,  37S.  Price  of  la- 
bor, 379. 

Ure,  Dr.,  'Philosophy  of  .Manufac- 
tures,' 29.  On  mechanical  and 
chemical  manufacture,  40.  On 
spinning,  144.  On  heating  fac- 
tories, 78.  On  moving  power  of 
a  modern  factory,  152.  On  use 
of  the  Perrotiue,  166,  167  ;  on 
calico-printing  cylinder, 167 ;  on 
manufacturing  districts  of  Eng- 
land and    Scotland,  263,  289 


INDEX. 


443 


His  classiticatiou  of  the  arts, 
294-303.    On  silk  manufacture 
of  Lyons,  304-306. 
Useful  arts,  sec  .Arts. 

V. 

Valley  Forge,  275. 

Vegetable  manures,  113,  114. 

Vegetables,  history  of,  345.  Ar- 
tichoke, asparagus,  celery,  cau- 
liflower, 345. 

Vehicles,  used  in  transportation, 
232-237.  Wheel  carriages,  232 
-235.     Vessels,  236. 

\'c!ocity,  50.  Of  moving  bodies, 
57-59.  Increases  power  witii 
loss  of  time,  93.  Change  of, 
by  machinery,  94,  95.  5lodes 
of  increasing,  96,  97. 

Velvet,  how  woven,  139. 

Verplanck,  G.  C,  309. 

Vessels,  on  motion  of,  in  water, 
236.  Best  form  of,  236.  Steam, 
243,  244. 

Vinegar,  how  made,  174. 

Vinous   fermentation,  172,  173. 

W. 

Wagon ,  centre  of  gravity  illustra- 
ted by,  53. 

War,  of  1812,  effects  of,  on  com- 
merce in  United  States,  273. 

Warp,  in  weaving,  139. 

Washington,  state  of  his  army, 
275.  On  extension  and  encour- 
agement of  manufacturing  in- 
terests, 278,  291. 

Watch,  balance-wheel  of,  94. 
Figure  of,  95.     Wheels  of,  96. 

Water,  combines  with  alcohol, 
40.  ■  Dissolves  sugar,  41.  Of 
what  composed,  44,  45  ;  same 
ingredients  always  in  same  pro- 
portions, 45.  Action  on  wheels, 
60—62.  Supply  of,  in  a  city, 
62.  Pressure  of,  63,  64.  Em- 
.  ployed  as  the  standard  of  specific 
gravity,  66.  How  raised  in  the 
pump,  69.  How  forced  out,  in 
the  fire-engine,  71.  Freezing 
of,  77,  78.    Great  expansion  of, 


in  steam,  79.  Use  to  soil  and 
plants,  110.  Powerful  solvent, 
124.  Resistance  of,  to  vessels, 
&c.,  236,  237  ;  in  a  canal, 
237  ;  increases  as  the  square 
of  the  velocity,  238. 

Water  conveyance,  237,  238, 
243,  244. 

Water-level,  construction  and  fig- 
ure of,  66. 

Water-niark,  in  paper,  156. 

Water-meadows,  338,  339. 

Water-power,  in  United  States, 
271. 

Water-wheels,  varieties  of,  60, 
61,  62. 

Watt,  James,  33.  Figure  and  il- 
lustration of  his  steam-engine, 
81.  Origin  of  his  flexible  wa- 
ter-main, 102.  A  man  of  sci- 
ence, 322. 

Wax,  bleaching  of,  ICO. 

Weaving,  process  of,  139,  140, 
150.  Various  kinds  of,  139, 
140.  Among  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, 141. 

Webster,  Daniel,  on  agriculture 
in  England,  329-341. 

Wedge,  principle  of,  91.  Figure 
of,  91.     Examples  of,  91. 

Wedgewood,  pvrometer  invented 
by,  77.  .Manufactory  of,  209. 
Improvements  in  the  art  of  pot- 
tery, 213. 

Weight,  in  a  clock,  57. 

Weslev,  John,  313. 

Wheat,  188. 

Wheel,  overshot,  60  ;  water  acts 
on,  by  weight,  60.  Undershot, 
water  acts  on,  by  impulse,  61. 
Breast,  61,  62.  Toothed,  and 
rack,  94.    Balance,  in  a  watch, 

94,  95. 

Wheel  and  axle,  examples  of, 
89,  90.  Principle  of,  90,  95, 
96.      Representations   of,    90, 

95,  96.     Power  of,  95,  96. 
Wheel  carriages,  232-235. 
Wheel,  fly,  power,  97.     Use,  93. 
Wheels,    diminish   resistance  of 

friction,  233  ;  in  proportion  to 


444 


their  size,  234.  Why  dishel, 
235.  Broad  and  narrow,  235. 
Water,  varieties  of,  60,  61,  62. 

White  vitriol,  43. 

Whitney,  Eli,  145,  146. 

Wilks,  J.,  his  pulp-rollers,  15S. 

Wiliett,  Col.  M.,  310. 

Willow,  the,  147. 

Wiltshire,  meadows  in,  33S. 

Windmills,  71. 

Window-glass,  how  made,  203. 

Windows,  glass,  a  modern  inven- 
tion, 201.  Found  at  Pompeii, 
201.      Painted,  206. 

Wine,  best,  obtained  from  the 
grape,  173,  174.  Adulteration 
of,  175,  176. 


Wire-drawing,  219. 
Wood-engraving,  215. 
Woof,  wefk,  or  filling,  139. 
Wool,    scouring    and    cleansing; 

161.      Dyeing,  162.     ' 
'  AVorkingmau's  Companion,'  360 
Workiugmen,  who  are,  311. 
Wort,  173. 

Wrought  iron,  96,  195. 
Wyatt,    John,   his    patent    for   • 

spinning-frame,  143. 

Y. 

Yolk,  in  wool,  161. 

Z. 

Zinc,  acetate  of,  4S. 


THE  END. 


